Factoid: Crazy Chris\n Columbus based his voyages on two faulty beliefs: that the world is 25 percent smaller than it actually is, and that it is composed mostly of land. Had America not existed, Columbus' expedition members would have starved to death before he reached China.
Factoid: Oops! We're Home\n The first makeshift European settlement in the New World was La Navidad, built on Espanola when the Santa Maria was wrecked in December 1492. The fort was constructed from timbers that were salvaged from the wrecked ship.
Factoid: Early Slavery\n When Columbus first met the natives, they were friendly. Because of the brutishness of the Europeans, their friendliness did not last long. Columbus subjugated the natives and sent many captives to Spain to be sold as slaves. Queen Isabella immediately objected to the practice and had the slaves freed and returned home.
Factoid: "The Pharaoh"\n Although Columbus was a great explorer, he was not particularly popular. Columbus' attempts to establish governments in the New World were fraught with rebellion. In 1499, "the pharaoh" (as Columbus came to be known) was removed as governor of Espanola and brought to Spain in shackles. Although Columbus was soon freed, he was forbidden to ever set foot on Espanola again, and was later denied permission to sail his ships into Espanola's harbor in spite of an approaching hurricane.
Factoid: One Small Army\n Cortez's campaign against the Aztecs took place under a force of 600 men, 20 horses, and 10 artillery pieces. With this force and 600 native allies, Cortez took the Aztec emperor Montezuma hostage and occupied the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. When the Aztecs rebelled, Montezuma spoke to his people and tried to persuade them to remain loyal. Montezuma was not particularly persuasive -- the Aztecs responded to the address by stoning Montezuma to death.
Factoid: "I'll Be Back" Says Cortez\n After initially occupying the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, the Spaniards were driven out in July 1520. Cortez regrouped his army and, after several victories against forces that greatly outnumbered his own, recaptured and burned Tenochtitlan in August 1521. The Aztec empire fell soon afterward.
Factoid: Know Your Limits\n Cortez, the most powerful of the Spanish conquistadors, was brought down not by battle, but by politics. Cortez's conquests led to many honors, but his great ambition earned him many enemies. Cortez, then captain-general and governor of New Spain, was ordered in 1528 to relinquish his posts. Cortez negotiated his return to Mexico in 1530, but was never permitted to hold political office again and was denied most of his property for the remainder of his life. The Aztecs were in a position to sympathize, but it is unlikely that they did.
Factoid: Seven Cities of Gold\n Francisco Coronado was a Spanish conquistador who sought the treasures of the legendary seven cities of Cibola. Instead of treasure, his expeditions found the Grand Canyon, the buffalo herds of the Great Plains, and other wonders of the American Southwest. The Spanish were not impressed by these discoveries. Coronado was stripped of his political offices and was not permitted to go on any further expeditions.
Factoid: Cold Cabot Cuts No Ice\n John Cabot was the first European to explore the northern part of the North American continent. During his second voyage, he sailed northward along the Greenland coast, believing he would find Japan. His freezing crew, who developed a justifiable skepticism as well as frostbite, mutinied. The expedition was forced to turn southward and soon returned home because of lack of supplies. Cabot died in the following year.
Factoid: Vespucci's Legacy\n The Italian navigator Amerigo Vespucci boasted that on his 1497 voyage he reached the American mainland before anyone else did. Scholars who have studied the historical records doubt that there ever was a 1497 voyage. German cartographer Martin Waldseemuller first named the New World "America" after translating Vespucci's narrative in 1507, which gives rise to the notion that America came into being because of a single man's talent for self-promotion.
Factoid: England's New World Order\n England's first attempts at building colonies in the New World were abject failures. Colonists were too busy looking for gold and alienating the native tribes to participate in trivial tasks like agriculture. The first successful colony was Jamestown, which was founded in 1607. It took only 12 years for the colonists to begin importing African slaves into the colony.
Factoid: Hummin' Sacrifice\n The Aztec god of war and the sun was Huitzilopochtli, who is born anew each morning from his mother's womb. Huitzilopochtli, which means "hummingbird," was depicted as a hummingbird or as a warrior who wore hummingbird feathers for armor. He was thought to require human hearts and blood for nourishment; hence prisoners of war were sacrificed to him. These warriors became part of the sun's brilliance until they were reborn, four years later, as hummingbirds.
Factoid: Seeking a Higher Passage\n When Europeans realized that a large continent blocked their way to the silk lands of the Orient, they looked for a way to get around the continent. The Northwest Passage, a route through the Canadian arctic, was one of the most popular solutions. Unfortunately, the passage was so difficult to navigate that expeditions either turned back or perished. The passage was finally navigated successfully in 1906 by Roald Amundsen.
Factoid: Natives Saddled With Horses\n The first domestic horses in the New World were Arabians, brought over by Spanish conquistadors in the early 16th century. It is said that both Cortez and De Soto lost or abandoned some of their horses and that these became the source of the herds of wild horses that were found in the American West.
Factoid: Airing Their Dirty Laundry\n Ships traveling to the New World had problems with laundry; clothing got very dirty during long voyages. Since sea water wasn't suitable for washing, sailors used the other commonly available liquid for washing -- their own urine.
Factoid: Written in Inca\n The Incas did not possess a system of writing, horses, or wheeled vehicles. They did have a complex network of stone roads and teams of trained relay runners who worked as messengers. They also had a sophisticated recording system using knotted colored strings called quipus, which recorded important data such as population and supplies. By the time of Pizarro, the Incan governmental system was more sophisticated than any other in the New World.
Factoid: Bizarro Pizarro\n Francisco Pizarro settled in Panama in 1519, but soon became discontent with the life of a mere settler. He collaborated with Spanish soldier Diego de Almagro to conquer the lands south of Panama. Upon learning of the Incas, Almagro and Pizarro raised an army of 180 men and embarked on a war of conquest. They conquered Peru in 1535, but territorial disputes soon broke up the partnership. Pizarro captured and executed Almagro in 1538, but Almagro's followers assassinated Pizarro three years later. It was, perhaps, a fitting end to one of the most ruthless conquerors of the New World.
Factoid: The Real Pocahontas\n The legend of Pocahontas saving John Smith's life is likely false. The real Pocahontas was probably 12 years old at the time of the "incident," and written reports describe her as a rambunctious youth with a shaven head who entertained the colonists by performing cartwheels in the nude in front of them. She was taken captive by the English, baptized in Jamestown, and married colonist John Rolfe with the blessings of both the native chief and the governor. Pocahontas died in 1617 at the age of 22.
Factoid: Jumping From the Glyphs\n The Aztecs had a highly advanced writing system, employing a symbology known as glyphs. These markings were viewed (along with the rest of Aztec culture) as pagan and evil by the Aztecs' Spanish conquerors, who destroyed Aztec libraries whenever they had an opportunity. Only about 30 Aztec records have survived to the present day.
Factoid: Natives Toy With the Wheel\n The wheel was known to Mesoamericans, but they never developed common Indo-European applications like the potter's wheel, wagon wheels, chariots, or pulleys. Instead, they limited the use of the wheel to what computer gamers today might consider a more important application -- toys.
Factoid: The Latest in Foreign Imports\n The use of African slaves in the New World was a continuation of an already existing practice; African enslavement was first adopted by the Portuguese in 1444, using slaves taken by their African outposts. Spain soon adopted the practice, although Portugal controlled the slave trade for nearly a century.
Factoid: Once Around the World\n The leader of the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe was Ferdinand Magellan. He departed Spain in 1519 with a fleet of five ships and 241 men. Only one ship and 18 men returned. Magellan was not among the survivors.
Factoid: They Are What You Eat\n Of all the habits of the natives of the New World, few dismayed the Europeans as much as the practice of cannibalism. Amerigo Vespucci described an early encounter where a young Spaniard, while conversing with a circle of native women, was clubbed to death from behind and dragged up a hill by the women, where he was roasted over a great fire. To the horror of the Spaniard's crew mates, the natives then displayed and ate the pieces of the dead sailor.
Factoid: No Way to Thank the Help\n Exploration was as hard on the pack animals as it was on the people. Father Pedro Simon described one notable donkey who endured mountain trails "more suitable for cats than for men," and described the animal as "an ass which deserves to be numbered among the Conquistadors." Alas, the expedition ran out of food, and the honored donkey was eaten by the starving explorers.
Factoid: The Bigger They Are...\n The sailors who explored the New World were not particularly large men, especially compared to some of the natives of South America, the Patagonians. Italian writer Antonio Pigafetta, who traveled with Magellan, described one man as "so tall that we reached only to his waist, and he was well proportioned." Patagonians were described as eating a basketful of biscuits and drinking a half-pail of water in a single gulp, as well as eating rats without skinning them first.
Factoid: They Eat Horses, Don't They?\n Hunger was a way of life among early settlers. One description of life in the early years of Buenos Aires described three Spaniards who secretly killed and ate a horse, and were hanged for the crime. The evening after the hanging, three more Spaniards went to the gallows, hacked off the dead men's thighs and other edible parts, and then took them home and ate them.
Factoid: What's Not Mine Is Yours\n In 1493, Pope Alexander VI divided the New World between Spain and Portugal. The Cenu Indians of modern day Columbia, when told of this in 1512, remarked that the pope must have been drunk to give so much land that didn't belong to him to Catholics.
Factoid: Wonder Women\n The Amazon river was named after the warrior women of Greek myth, and for good reason. Spanish reports of a battle in the area describe female captains who clubbed to death any man who tried to retreat from the battlefield, and who fought with the ferocity of 10 Indian males.
Factoid: Military Sacrifices\n Aztec human sacrifice rituals involved removing the victim's heart with an obsidian knife, cutting off the victim's head for display, eating the victim's limbs (with chili or maize), and throwing the torso away to feed animals in the Aztecs' zoos. While the Aztecs had always practiced human sacrifice, the number of sacrifices had drastically increased in the 40 years before the coming of Cortez. This was due to increased military activity that created a heavy demand for sacrifice.
Factoid: They Started It!\n One of the darkest deeds of the colonization of the New World was the 1503 massacre of Xaragua. The Spanish governor Ovando invited the local queen to dinner and had her hanged to death while her followers were burned alive. Ovando justified this act, one of many atrocities he committed, by claiming that the Indians planned to attack them first.
Factoid: A Pox on Them\n The great scourge of the natives of the New World wasn't war; it was disease. The natives had no immunity to viral infections like smallpox. According to best estimates, the population of Mexico before the coming of the Europeans was eight million. By 1560, it had dropped to 2.6 million, largely due to pestilence.
Factoid: You Belong in a Zoo\n Montezuma, ruler of the Aztecs, had several special zoos. One of these zoos was for human beings, where misfits were kept. Several two-headed people, who were allegedly an omen of terrible things to come, were sent to this zoo shortly before the arrival of the Spanish and mysteriously vanished.
Factoid: Flower Power\n The peoples of Mexico had an elaborate system to settle disputes: a "war of flowers," where the Mexicans and their enemies would fight on a prearranged battlefield on a day agreed by both participants. The goal of this battle was to take prisoners, not territory; this allowed the Aztecs a steady flow of victims for the sacrificial altar.
Factoid: My God!\n A Portuguese explorer who was captured by Indians in Brazil had the unpleasant experience of seeing a sick comrade, when he was of no further use to his captors, get killed and eaten. When the Indians considered using the explorer as the second course, he saved his life by telling the Indians that his comrade had been punished by his god for slandering him, and that his god would do the same to anyone who would harm him. The frightened natives spared his life. The explorer promptly thanked God for giving him an opportunity to demonstrate His power.
Factoid: Sharp Woman\n The conquest of the New World did not belong exclusively to men. The most famous conquistadora was Maria de Estrada, whose skill with a sword was said to be the equal of any man's, and whose courage during the Spanish flight from Tenochtitlan (while most of the Spanish men were panicking and trying to escape with as much gold as possible) helped save Cortez's life.
Factoid: Columbus' Legacy\n The promise of easy riches in the New World was rarely kept, and settlers could be quite bitter. One person, referring to the sons of Christopher Columbus, said: "There go the sons of the Admiral of the Mosquitoes, who discovered lands of vanity and delusion, the grave of Castilian gentry."
Factoid: Roll 'Em\n Although early Virginian settlers sought gold (and failed to find it), they soon found another commodity just as valuable. The currency of early Virginia was not pounds sterling, but pounds of tobacco.
Factoid: Always the Bride\n There was only one woman for every three men in the Virginia colony, but the mortality rate was so high that a woman could usually count on making a small fortune by remarrying when her overworked husband died. A woman typically waited one month between the death of a husband and remarrying, but sometimes the waiting period was as short as a week.
Factoid: Growing Industry\n The English began exporting tobacco from Virginia in 1613. By 1629, they were exporting over 1.5 million pounds per year. The growth of the tobacco farms was an important motivation for the "expulsion" of the Powhatan Indians, who had controlled Virginia at the time the English landed.
Factoid: The Sword & Cross\n In 1623, the pilgrims of Plymouth Rock sent a report to their friends in England about their victory over a local Indian band. One pastor, who didn't understand why the pilgrims felt it necessary to use military force, wrote back: "Oh, how happy a thing it would be if you had converted some before you killed any."
Factoid: Captain John Strict\n John Smith, the man whose life Pocahontas allegedly saved, was not the noble explorer of legend. As president of the Jamestown colony, he was quoted as saying: "Any mouth that quibbles with my authority will soon enough be preaching obedience, wordlessly, from the top of a pike."
Factoid: I'll Drink to That, Dutchie!\n In 1647, with several hundred settlers living in New Amsterdam, one out of every four buildings was a tavern.
Factoid: No Magic Necessary\n Jean de Brebeuf, a Jesuit missionary who lived among the Hurons, was sentenced to death for sorcery during an epidemic. Brebeuf held a Huron funeral feast before his execution, and so impressed the natives with his bravery that his show of courage (along with a lull in the epidemic) forced the Hurons to stay the sentence.
Factoid: Impuritans?\n The pilgrim founders of the Plymouth colony came to the New World to escape moral corruption, but the pursuit of material wealth proved too great a temptation even for the Puritans. The colony nearly went bankrupt in the 1630s when one of the governor's most trusted people embezzled money for his own investments. Worse (as far as the Puritans were concerned), was the discovery of a papist living in the colony.
Factoid: Chameleon Conversion\n Jesuit missionaries believed in assimilating the cultures they encountered by having their members adopt the local culture and then adapt it towards Christianity. To this end, a Jesuit in the Orient became court astrologer to the Chinese emperor, and a Jesuit in the New World took on the character of a tribal shaman.
Factoid: Civil Warfare\n One night before a prospective battle with the Iroquois, the French sent a party to the enemy asking them if they wanted to fight. The Iroquois replied that they had no other desire, but that they did prefer to wait for good light so they would know whom they were killing.
Factoid: Stay Dry and Die\n During the 1640s, the Hurons were being overwhelmed by the Iroquois. The Hurons' French allies agreed to supply the Hurons with badly needed guns -- but only to those Hurons who had been baptized first. The Hurons were soon wiped out by their enemies.
Factoid: Unhappy Reunion\n Samuel de Champlain, founder of Quebec, was very proud of his colony. His wife, however, was not. When Samuel finally persuaded her to visit Quebec, Mme. de Champlain saw the poverty of early colonial life and immediately returned to France to join a convent -- the 17th century equivalent of a divorce.
Factoid: Native POWs\n When Samuel de Champlain first fought with the Hurons against the Iroquois, he was amazed that the Hurons only took a few prisoners and trophies and allowed the large Iroquois force to escape. At first he thought that this was because the Hurons were merciful -- until he saw how the Hurons treated their prisoners. Champlain was forced to shoot one Iroquois to put him out of his misery, an act that puzzled the Hurons.
Factoid: Iroquois Epitaph\n In 1698, the French attacked the capital of the once-mighty Iroquois. The natives fled the attack; the only one killed was a decrepit old man who, while being tortured to death, lectured his captors on how they should conduct themselves when they were captured by the Iroquois, as one day (he assured them) they surely would be.
Factoid: Politics As Usual\n Local politics in the New World was dirty, even by contemporary standards. In 1649 Peter Stuyvesant, the unpopular head of the New Amsterdam colony, held a public meeting to arrange for the hanging of one of his enemies when another political opponent brought out a document from the Dutch government recalling him home. Stuyvesant remained in charge long enough to see the British conquer the colony in 1664.
Factoid: A Fort Too Far\n Sweden's attempt to colonize the New World was stopped by the Dutch. Realizing that holding the Swedish forts would be too great a strain on their resources, the Dutch attempted to return control of the forts to Sweden. The Swedes, who had become weary of frontier life, told the Dutch to keep the forts and went home.
Factoid: We Don't Know Where We're Going, But We're Making Good Time\n Columbus' first voyage left Spain on August 3, 1492 and spotted land on October 12. It took Columbus 70 days to reach the New World, including a stopover of 30 days in the Canary Islands to repair a damaged mast.
Factoid: They Don't Speak, They're Horse(s)\n Among the sights that most amazed the Aztecs about the Spaniards were the strange, deer-like animals that they rode. Initially, the Aztecs thought that these animals (which were actually horses) must possess the power of speech, because the Spaniards were always talking to them.
Factoid: A Too-Secret Treaty\n Fearing an attack from the British, Peter Stuyvesant, governor of New Amsterdam, secretly negotiated a treaty. Suspecting that the Dutch would never approve of his actions, Stuyvesant kept the treaty a secret even from his own government. When the British did attack, Stuyvesant's objections based on the treaty were rejected because it had never been ratified.
Factoid: It's a Cultural Thing\n One of Cortez's most reliable allies against the Aztecs were the Tlaxcallans. They became allies after two skirmishes against each other that were precipitated when Cortez gave them a present of a crossbow and arrows -- an offering traditionally given by Mexicans to their enemies before they went to war.
Factoid: A Real Champion\n John Smith, governor of Virginia, first gained prominence fighting as a mercenary for the Hungarians against the Turks. Smith became famous for defeating Turkish champions in single combat. When he came to the New World and fell into an Indian ambush, he challenged the Powhatan leader to single combat. The leader stared at Smith in disbelief, which allowed Smith to rush past his guard, shove a pistol into his ribs, and force the Indians to surrender.
Factoid: Ruse Awakening\n Aztec battle tactics favored feints and deceptions. Tactics included digging trenches and concealing large forces under piles of straw or in cornfields and then feigning retreat to lure an enemy into the ambush. They also dressed children in uniforms, lured the enemy to attack them, and counterattacked with the real army from an unexpected location.
Factoid: A New Brand of Slavery\n The British got into the slave trade in 1663 when the Royal Adventurers to Africa, led by the duke of York (later King James II), began importing slaves to Jamaica. Every slave brought to the New World by the British in the latter part of the 17th century was branded with a DY (for Duke of York).
Factoid: What's in a Name?\n When William Penn, the pious Quaker governor of Pennsylvania, was given control over several communities in the Delaware colony, his greatest concern was the name of one of the towns -- Whorekill, which he wanted to change to "New Deal."
Factoid: Breaking Bread and Backs\n During negotiations with the Ottawa Indians, enemies of the Iroquois, a group of Frenchmen brought them an Iroquois captive. Claiming the French culture was backward in such matters, the French asked the Indians to torture the captive. The Ottawa Indians gladly tortured the Iroquois, who broke and begged for a merciful death. The French began to chant, "To the pot! To the pot!" A fine meal was had by all, and the Ottawa-French alliance was sealed.
Factoid: Not Much of a Cure\n During an epidemic, Jesuits baptized many Hurons, believing that adversity had converted them to the true faith. What the Jesuits didn't realize is that the Hurons had a practice of trying one curing rite after another until they found one that worked. Thus, the Jesuits were shocked to see the recently "converted" engaging in lewd communal curing rites. The Jesuits then withheld baptism from the Hurons except from those who were obviously about to die. This convinced the Hurons that baptism was a rather ineffective way to cure people.
Factoid: Coughing Coffers\n Tobacco was first imported to England in 1612. By the 1630s, the sale of Virginia tobacco was supplying one-twentieth of the revenue of the English crown!
Factoid: Swamp Bacon\n One celebrated battle of early Virginia was the Great Swamp Battle of 1676. Unruly frontiersmen, led by Nathaniel Bacon, attempted to massacre the Pamunkey Indians after driving them into a treacherous bog. Only eight Indians were killed (probably shot in the back), as opposed to the hundreds claimed by the Virginians. Bacon eventually died from a sickness he caught in the swamp.
Factoid: Good Help Is Hard To Find\n When tobacco planters became a privileged class in 17th century Virginia, they bought most of the land and forced settlers into indentured servitude. Nathaniel Bacon, an early frontiersman and troublemaker, led a rebellion against the English, burning Jamestown to the ground in 1676. When the rebellion ended, the wealthy landholders decided that indentured servants were unreliable and began importing another type of worker -- African slaves -- in large numbers. This began the dark age of slavery in the American South.
Factoid: That's Easy For You To Say\n In the mid-1640s in New Amsterdam (later New York), 18 different languages were spoken by the 500 inhabitants. This led to its receiving the nickname "Babel of the New World."
Factoid: Bad Spirits\n The French found local Indian tribes a willing market for the brandy trade, but many priests despised brandy's effect on the natives. Indians would trade all of their clothing and provisions for drink, leaving the tribe to starve in winter. One priest wryly commented that the bestiality of drunken Indians should not come as a surprise; brandy has the same effect on Indians, he said, as the prospect of beaver furs has on Europeans.
Factoid: Native Wars\n Perhaps the greatest Huron warrior was Ahatsistari. He led a band of Hurons that defeated their hated enemy, the Iroquois, despite being outnumbered 6-to-1. Later, when his canoe party met a superior Iroquois force, he leapt into an Iroquois canoe, slew the paddler, capsized the canoe, and then swam around killing anyone he could catch. Ahatsistari converted to Christianity, was captured by the Iroquois, and was hideously tortured to death. Despite the cruelty of the torture, Ahatsistari did not break, and in his last breath shouted: "Arise, someone from our bones as avengers." Alas, this never occurred -- the Hurons were wiped out by the Iroquois soon afterwards.
Factoid: Deliberate No-Adjournment Policy\n In William Penn's Pennsylvania, jurors were not permitted to eat, drink, sleep, or perform other bodily functions until they reached a verdict.
Factoid: A Real Martyr\n Isaac Jogues was a Jesuit missionary who was captured and tortured by the Iroquois. He returned to France where nobility vied to see a living martyr and view his mutilations. Disgusted by their attention and hypocrisy, Jogues returned to the New World to resume the life of a missionary. He traveled again to the Iroquois, only to learn that their recent truce with the French had broken down. This time Jogues was killed. Jogue's assistant slipped away from their captors, but chose to sneak over to Jogues' body to get a relic of the famed martyr instead of escaping. He was discovered by the Indians and killed.
Factoid: Wait Limit\n Hurons who traveled with Jesuits required their passengers to carry their own baggage through portages. The Hurons were used to traveling lightly and living off the land. The Jesuits were not. This resulted in the Hurons spending a lot of time lounging during the travels and joking about the ridiculous quantity of goods that the Europeans carried with them.
Factoid: Is It Soup Yet?\n When Hurons traveled, they lived off a mashed corn broth called sagamite. Europeans exposed to sagamite were not eager to eat it, partly because the stones used to mash the corn were dirty, and partly because the broth was eaten in birchbark bowls that were also used as urinals.
Factoid: Prosperity\n By the 18th century, conditions in France's Acadia colony had reached such a level of prosperity that it was said that the pigs of Acadian farmers ate better than peasants in France.
Factoid: White Flag or White Napkin?\n Peace negotiations with hostile Indian tribes in the New World could be extremely dangerous. When the French decided to negotiate with their old enemy, the Iroquois, the first two delegates they sent were roasted and eaten.
Factoid: Adding Some Spice to Life\n In early Virginia, the mortality rate among new arrivals was so high that the inhabitants would place wagers on how many people would survive for a single season. This came to be known as "seasoning."
Factoid: Tulip Colonists\n In the 17th century, a craze developed in the Netherlands for a bulbous flower introduced from Constantinople called the tulip. At the height of the craze, a single tulip bulb sold for thousands of guilders. When the fad ended and the price of tulip bulbs dropped like a stone, many who invested in the fad were ruined. Some of these impoverished people were among the first Dutch and English immigrants to the New World.
Factoid: Sitting Ducks\n One of the staples of the diet of American settlers was the passenger pigeon. Some colonists would stake blinded pigeons in their fields; their cooing attracted passing pigeons to roost where they could be killed. In 1675, so many pigeons settled near the Jamestown colony that tree branches broke under their weight, and a person could fire into a flock, take the fat ones, and leave the skinnier ones for their hogs. The passenger pigeon was hunted to extinction by 1914.
Factoid: For Whom the Bell Tolls\n Martin Frobisher, the English explorer who was one of the earliest seekers of the Northwest Passage, lost several of his crew to a native ambush. Frobisher decided that he needed to capture one of these natives, so he began ringing toy bells and hurled them off the side of the ship. The fascinated natives went to the side of the ship to grab the bells. Like a mighty hunter, Frobisher snatched one and took him back to England. The native, possibly an Eskimo, died of pneumonia shortly after his arrival.
Factoid: Our Little Secret\n Columbus expected to hit China instead of America. When it became increasingly obvious that his expeditions hadn't reached China, he threatened his crew. Unless they swore that the people they had met on their journeys were Chinese, they would lose their tongues.
Factoid: Strict, But Fair\n While Cortez, conqueror of Mexico, was known for his ruthlessness toward the Aztecs, he was also capable of fairness. When one of his men stole two turkeys from a native, he had the thief publicly hanged.
Factoid: Real Incentive to Play\n The Aztecs played a variation of basketball called ollamaliztli, which involved from one to six nobles on each side competing for the honor of their city or kingdom. After important games, the losing team was sometimes sacrificed.
Factoid: Aztec Integrity\n Once, while visiting a farm in one of his provinces, the Aztec emperor Montezuma picked a cob of corn from one of the fields. A farmer chastised the emperor for breaking one of his own laws by stealing the corn. The emperor, impressed by the farmer's courage, made him an imperial minister.
Factoid: Unhappy Birthdays\n The last five days of the Aztec year were the Nemontemi, the Useless Days. The Aztecs believed that children born on these days were doomed to live a life of misery. The Nemontemi are the equivalent of January 28 to February 1 on the Gregorian calendar.
Factoid: Native Defiance\n Although the Spanish conquered the Aztecs with great ease, other Mexican tribes proved more difficult to subjugate. The Mayans of Tayasal, a city in the middle of Lake Peten, remained independent of the Spanish until 1697, over 150 years after the fall of Tenochtitlan.
Factoid: Know Your Place, Aztec\n In Aztec society, the higher your social status, the more severely you were punished if you broke the law. A commoner who got drunk in public might receive a stern warning; a noble could be executed for the same crime.
Factoid: Names From the Aztecs\n The Aztecs actually called themselves the Mexica, from which the name Mexico is derived. The word "Aztec" was coined in 1813 by a Mesoamerican scholar from the ancient city Aztlan, the legendary birthplace of the Aztec civilization.
Factoid: Marco Polo Wasn't Here\n When Columbus landed on Hispanola, he learned about a region named Cibao. Columbus was so eager to identify this land with the discoveries of Marco Polo that he assumed that the land was really the land that Polo described as Cipangu. He came to the conclusion that the names were different because the natives did not know how to pronounce the name of their own island. Columbus later used the natives' alleged inability to speak their language properly as a justification for their enslavement.
Factoid: God's Ungrateful Servant\n Columbus believed that his voyages were predetermined by God, and that he was God's instrument in civilizing the world. As such, Columbus accused anyone who disagreed with his orders as being guilty not only of mutiny, but of sin. By his fourth voyage, Columbus' messianic delusions led him to include his "ungrateful" royal patrons Ferdinand and Isabella among those who had earned God's wrath.
Factoid: Native Chattel\n Columbus' initial impression of the natives of the New World was that they were gentle and soft-spoken. This impression soon changed once Columbus realized that he could make a profit from the slave trade. Soon, Columbus equated "men" with "beasts," and began to talk of selling "head of women" in the same manner as a rancher would discuss selling head of cattle. To Columbus and other Europeans, the people of the New World became nothing more than objects.
Factoid: Native Mouthpiece Not Heard\n Although most early Spanish settlers felt that it was morally justifiable to exploit the natives of the New World, there were dissenters. Bartolome de Las Casas, a priest who traveled with Columbus, made a careful record of Spanish atrocities and pleaded the native case before the Spanish court. Sadly, his complaints were frequently ignored.
Factoid: You Can't Do That!\n There were many superstitions during the Age of Exploration, and these superstitions did not die easily. It was commonly believed that the lands below the equator were uninhabitable, even after the Portuguese had explored the lands around the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa.
Factoid: Thanks, But No\n When Pizarro conquered the Incas, he had the Incas' emperor Atahualpa baptized into Christianity, and then garroted him to death.
Factoid: With No Grain of Salt\n Europe needed Eastern spices more out of necessity than for fine dining. Until the 1700s, Europe's farms were chronically short of winter feed for cattle, so large numbers were slaughtered in the fall and salted for preservation. Although salt, which was cheaper than Eastern spices, came from Portugal, it was never available in sufficient quantity. Thus, there was a need for pepper from India and the East Indies, cinnamon from Sri Lanka, nutmeg and mace from the Celebes, and ginger from China and the Malabar coast to mask the flavor of the spoiling meat.
Factoid: Scurvy\n On long voyages, sailors could get scurvy, a debilitating disease featuring swollen gums, wasted muscle, and lethargy. Learning from the Chinese who had long understood the relationship between diet and beriberi, the British East India Company in 1601 carried lemons and oranges to fight scurvy. In the 1700s, British sailors received lime juice with their daily rum ration, hence their nickname of "limeys."
Factoid: A Spot of Tea\n In approximately 1610, tea made its first European appearance. Brought from Japan, the drink first arrived in Portugal and Holland, with the first public tea sale taking place in England in 1657. Merchants claimed it was a cure-all, but people soon learned of its limited medicinal use (boiling water did help reduce the spread of disease). In the 1800s, the Russians would become the second largest consumers of tea, after the British.
Factoid: The Gin Era\n In the 16th century, the Dutch began to distill gin, whose name comes from the juniper (or genever) berries that flavored it. By the 1690s, it was so popular and cheap in England as to be depicted in Hogarth's "Gin Lane." By 1737 there were almost 9,000 gin and brandy shops in London alone. England's gin era ended rapidly in 1751 with a high consumption tax which put the price of a drink out of the reach of the masses.
Factoid: Raked Over the Coals\n Being "raked over the coals" is a figure of speech that was invented in the 1500s for a more literal purpose. In addition to burning at the stake, being raked over hot coals was a common punishment for heresy.
Factoid: To Lead Apes in Hell\n "'Tis an old proverb, and you know it well, that women dying maids lead apes in hell." The expression of leading apes in hell was common in Shakespeare's time, and used in "The Taming of the Shrew" and "Much Ado About Nothing." Such was the perceived fate of spinsters.
Factoid: Tomatoes\n In addition to gold and silver, the explorers who invaded Mexico in the 16th century found another treasure that the natives called "tomatl." Samples of this new fruit, unknown in Europe, were brought back, and the tomato was quickly embraced by the gourmets of the continent. Early on, tomatoes were believed to have aphrodisiac qualities and earned the nickname "love apples."
Factoid: Coconut\n "Coconut" is slang for one's head, which is fitting. Discovered on islands in the Indian Ocean by Portuguese explorers sailing around Africa, not only is the nut about the size of a small head, but the addition of three dark hollows at its base gave such a resemblance to a grinning face that the explorers dubbed it so. "Coco" is Portuguese for "a grinning face."
Factoid: One Palm Looks Like the Other\n The only food crop that could be found in both the Old and New Worlds at the time of Columbus' voyages was the coconut palm.
Factoid: Hudson at Bay\n Henry Hudson was a Dutch navigator sailing under an English commission when he discovered the river that bears his name. On his next voyage, he attempted to find a northwest passage, only to find his ship locked in the ice of the bay that bears his name. His crew mutinied and put Hudson, his son, and a few loyal sailors over the side in a lifeboat, then sailed away when they could get free of the ice. A few of the crew reached England where they were imprisoned. Hudson and the others were never seen again.
Factoid: Long-Running Enterprise\n The Hudson's Bay company was founded in 1670 by Charles II of England as a private monopoly for his Bohemian cousin, Prince Rupert, and several of his friends. For many years it had a monopoly on the northern fur trade. The company continues to this day, although it closed its last fur salon in 1991.
Factoid: How Sweet it Is\n Brazil didn't really take off as a Portuguese colony until the mid-1500s when sugarcane was introduced from Madeira natives. Soon thereafter, plantations were carved out of the jungle, and Brazil became the first colony in the New World to be put primarily to agricultural use. By 1600, Brazil was producing half of the world's sugar, and its agricultural wealth attracted more Portuguese settlers to Brazil than to the rest of her colonies combined.
Factoid: Slavery in Brazil\n Due to the great success of sugarcane growers in Brazil (gold mining did not begin in earnest before the early 1700s and coffee only became a major crop in the 1800s), this colony became the largest, steadiest consumer of slaves from West Africa. Between 1530 and the end of the slave trade in 1870, Brazil imported between 3.5 and four million black slaves.
Factoid: Incan Empire Organization\n After Cuzco, the capital of the Incan empire, fell to Francisco Pizarro in 1533, Spanish conquest of the Incas was easy. The Incan empire had an extensive road network (running straight and firm across the Andes mountains and kept in perfect repair) and a slave economy, both of which made its conquest simple.
Factoid: From Bad to Worse?\n Incan rule was severe and the people's lives carefully regulated. For example, the ayllous (peasants) were not allowed to leave their government-assigned, state-owned land, had to die where they were born, and could own few possessions outside of their clothes. So brutal was this communistic society that Pizarro, a brutal man, was seen as a deliverer.
Factoid: Pizarro's Aftermath\n Adventurer Francisco Pizarro, after his conquest of the Incan empire (which was so rich the land was nicknamed Eldorado), was appointed governor of Peru by Spain. This was soon followed by a series of civil wars among the conquerors that lasted 20 years. Pizarro himself died fighting in these wars in 1541. Although local native rulers tried to gain an advantage during this quarreling, only in Chile did they have any success against Spanish military might.
Factoid: Calvinism\n The moving spirit of the second generation of Protestant reformers was John Calvin. His brand of Protestantism spread particularly to Scotland, the Netherlands, and from there to the New World. His doctrine of predestination (where God has preordained that some people will be saved, "the elect," and others damned, "the reprobates") separated his teachings from Luther. While neither believed that good works afforded redemption, Calvin taught that good works were a sign of election. Thus, Calvinism went well with Puritan morality, hard work, and material success. It also contributed to the rise of capitalism.
Factoid: English Fish Days\n There's more than penitence being served with fish on Fridays. Tudor England was trying to build their maritime strength and so instituted "fish days" to maintain its thriving fishing industry, and thereby supply the navy with experienced sailors in time of war. This also reduced the consumption of mutton and beef, always a concern with the rising unemployment due to the enclosure of arable land and its conversion to pasture. The punishment for failing to eat fish on Fridays and Lenten days was usually several days at the pillory.
Factoid: Ivan the Terrible\n Ivan IV became the Grand Duke of Muscovy at the age of three and was the first Russian ruler to use the title of Tsar (or Czar, meaning Caesar or emperor). He extended Russian rule eastward through Siberia and established good trade relations with the West. He was, however, excessively cruel and had his secret police (the Oprichniks) torture and kill all who were suspected of treason. Ivan had seven wives, killed his eldest son (another cruel S.O.B.), and died insane at age 54.
Factoid: Suleiman's Brilliance\n To the Turks, he was known as "Kanuni" (the lawgiver), because of his administrative and judicial reforms. To the West, he was dubbed "The Magnificent" because of his many military victories and splendid court. When he died after a forty-six-year reign as the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire in 1566, Suleiman I had added Belgrade, Rhodes, Hungary, Iraq, Egypt, Libya, and more to his empire while building up Ottoman naval strength. A soldier to the end, he died while besieging a Hungarian fortress.
Factoid: The Great Siege\n When the Knights of St. John were ousted by the Turkish conquest of Rhodes, they were granted Malta as their home in 1530 by Charles V. They remained at war with the "Turkish infidels," their sworn enemies. Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent therefore ordered a vast fleet and army to capture Malta in 1565. Outnumbered 4-to-1, the Knights held out from May to September when Christian reinforcements from Sicily sent the badly mauled Turks packing. The hero of the siege, Grand Master of the Order, Jean Parisot de la Vallette, founded a new, heavily fortified city. Valletta, as the city was named, became the island's capital.
Factoid: French Explorer Suggests Panama Canal\n Intrepid French explorer Samuel de Champlain suggested to the king of France that a canal cut across the Panama Isthmus could save 1500 leagues of travel to the Orient. Interestingly, it wouldn't be until 1881 that the French would attempt to actually build the canal. Labor problems and disease aborted its construction in 1889. In 1901, the United States and Britain set about building a canal through Nicaragua, but a Panamanian revolt against Columbia put the U.S. to work on the Panama Canal, which was finally completed in 1914.
Factoid: Mayas Stake Claim as First Real Men on Earth\n As far as the Mayas were concerned, neither man nor civilization had existed before them. According to the Popol Vuh, the sacred book of the Quiche Mayas, before the Mayas there had only been "pseudo-men" made of clay, sticks, and straw.
Factoid: New World Natives Define Civilization\n To the pre-Columbian American peoples, "civilization" meant their particular world -- the territory under their control. Inca, Aztec, and Maya each considered themselves the only culture in which barbarism did not exist. Those most guilty of ethnocentricity were the Incas, who not only believed that the civilized world did not exist outside their empire, but also that their culture had sprung up spontaneously like a divine gift from the sun.
Factoid: God Takes a Holiday\n The Mexicans held great festivals in honor of the god Quetzalcoatl, the feathered serpent. According to myth, after instructing the Mexicans on the benefits of civilization, Quetzalcoatl left for the east saying that he would one day return. When Cortez and the Spaniards arrived in the New World, they were considered the fulfillment of this prophecy.
Factoid: Women Break New Ground\n One Indian method of planting involved the men breaking the soil, then having the women come behind, some making holes with a drilling stick and others dropping seeds into the holes. It was necessary for women to do the actual planting, as it was believed that they were fertile, whereas men were not.
Factoid: Machu Picchu Hideaway\n One of the most impressive cities of the Incan domain was Machu Picchu, which served as the last refuge for the Incas after the Spanish conquest. It is situated over eight thousand feet above sea level, on top of a ridge in the Andes mountains. Its remote location prevented it from being discovered until 1912.
Factoid: Incan Strides in Early Terraforming\n The Incas were masters at terracing mountains, usually in the form of stairways leading up to their cities. The terraces were constructed by gangs of workers, and the cost was frequently covered by the state, which supplied sustenance to the laborers.
Factoid: Some Honeymoon\n The Mayas must not have had a word for "conjugal bliss" because their wedding nights couldn't have been very pleasant. Throughout the course of the night, the young couple would be lectured by two old women in an attempt to improve the couple's, er, performance.
Factoid: Locusts Masquerade As Arrows\n In one of the early expeditions into the New World, a skirmish occurred between Spanish troops and local natives in a locust-infested field. As the Spanish attempted to make their way across the field (somewhat difficult, as the natives were pelting them with arrows), swarms of locusts leapt up and flew into the faces of the Spanish troops. In the heat of battle, some Spaniards mistook the Indian arrows for locusts and were severely wounded when they failed to put up their shields.
Factoid: Revenge Is a Dish Best Served Hot\n Some Indian tribes would exact revenge on their enemies by shooting arrows tipped with flaming moss into enemy villages. The goal was to hit the dry palm branch roofs of their dwellings so they would catch fire. Looks like, for once, Hollywood got it right with those "flaming arrows."
Factoid: Spanish Explore New Avenues of Diplomacy\n On Hernando de Soto's trek through Florida and the American South, he would routinely kidnap the leaders of native villages and hold them hostage for food and slaves. Any slave who gave him trouble was thrown to the dogs and torn to pieces.
Factoid: Spanish Lancers Stomp Indians, 300-100\n In addition to their superior weapons technology, heavy cavalry gave the Europeans an edge over their native opponents. In one incident, in the northern Panhandle of Florida in the early 1500s, hundreds of native troops encircled the Spanish conquistador Hernando de Soto. De Soto's 100 cavalrymen promptly counterattacked, killing over 300 Indians and capturing hundreds more.
Factoid: De Soto Charms Cofitachequi Village\n During his expedition north of Florida in the early 1500s, the Spanish conquistador Hernando de Soto eventually came to the native village of Cofitachequi, which was rumored to have large stockpiles of gold. When he arrived, the female chief welcomed him with a string of freshwater pearls, the town's only commodity. In exchange, De Soto and his men plundered all the burial mounds in the village and departed with 200 pounds of pearls that had been left as offerings to the dead.
Factoid: Preliminaries Promising in Powhatan Province\n When the Roanoke expedition sent two ships to scout Roanoke Island, the English invited a curious Indian on board and gave him a hat and shirt, among other novelties. Not content with simply receiving gifts, the Indian left and returned a short time later with two loads of fish, one for each ship's crew.
Factoid: Early Surgeon General Warning\n Thomas Harriot, a naturalist in the Roanoke colony, studied the tobacco the Indians smoked in their ceremonies, and he thought it was responsible for their general vigor. A heavy tobacco smoker himself, Harriot claimed that it "purgeth superfluous phlegm and other gross humors" and "openeth all the pores and passages of the body." Harriot reportedly died of cancer.
Factoid: Bacteriological Warfare in New World\n The American natives rightfully drew a connection between the early colonists and the diseases that ravaged their villages. On one occasion, the Roanoke tribes pleaded with the colonists to punish an enemy village with their "invisible bullets." They later thanked the colonists profusely when disease did strike their enemies.
Factoid: Colonists and Natives Exchange Titles and Clothes\n In 1608, the president of the Jamestown colony, Christopher Newport, presented Chief Powhatan with a copper crown and a scarlet cloak, proclaiming him special tributary to King James I. Powhatan responded by giving Newport his raccoon cape and moccasins.
Factoid: Smith's Explosive Temper\n Captain John Smith cemented diplomatic relations with the natives in the New World by raiding their villages, seizing corn from them at gunpoint, burning their houses, and plundering their burial places. It took an injury from an exploding powder bag to force him to return to England.
Factoid: Weapon Care and Maintenance 101\n During one of their many uprisings in the 1620s, the natives confiscated many guns and plenty of ammunition. However, they lacked the know-how to maintain the weapons for long. Some reportedly planted gunpowder in the ground like corn in the hopes that it would flourish.
Factoid: Indians Master Early Public Transportation\n Indians would travel in large canoes called "pirogues." They are shaped like troughs and are hollowed out of huge single logs. Some pirogues could hold as many as forty people.
Factoid: Easier Than Taking Beads From a Spaniard\n Early in their exploration of the New World, Bernal Diaz and his companions noticed that the natives were in the habit of carrying brightly polished copper axes as a sign of rank. The copper was mistaken for gold by Diaz, who traded equally worthless beads for them. Each group took great delight in thinking they had gotten the better of the other.
Factoid: The Crusades Set the Stage\n The Crusades helped set the stage for the discovery and exploration of the New World. Contact with the Middle East and the advanced Moslem and Byzantine civilizations during the Crusades helped bring about a revival of trade and motivated Europeans to seek new trade routes to the Far East.
Factoid: Renaissance Brings About Well Roundedness\n During the Middle Ages, western Europeans traveled little, and such travel was mainly overland by foot or by horse. The Renaissance brought with it a desire to know more about the world's shape, size, and people. In order to reach distant lands by water, the Europeans drew precise maps, built faster and safer ships, and achieved greater accuracy in using the compass and astrolabe to determine direction and latitude. By the 15th century, educated Europeans accepted the belief, held by the ancient Greeks, that the world is not flat but round.
Factoid: Italians Provide Drive and Direction\n Part of the drive behind Portugal's and Spain's voyages of discovery was Italy's strategic location between Western Europe and the East. In addition to their desire to increase trade and establish colonial empires, Portugal and Spain hoped an all-water route to the Far East would undermine the monopoly the Italian city-states held on products imported from the East.
Factoid: Spain Obtains Early Lead in New World\n In 1600, before the English had even made their first settlement in the New World, Spanish colonists already numbered about 200 thousand. Why do you think Spanish is such a predominant language in Central and South America?
Factoid: King's Prerogative\n The king of Spain permitted no self-government at home and none in the colonies either. He exercised strict control over the colonies by giving absolute power to the viceroys, officials he sent from Spain to serve as Royal Governors. Like the king or ship's captains, they had absolute authority.
Factoid: France Challenges "Voice of God"\n When the king of France heard the news that the New World had been apportioned between Spain and Portugal by a papal decree, he demanded to see "the clause in Adam's will" that excluded his country. No such clause was forthcoming, so France set its own policies.
Factoid: French Force Finished, Influence Remains\n France lost her possessions in North America as a result of the French and Indian War (1754-1763). French influence in the New World, however, has remained strong in the province of Quebec, with its predominantly French-Canadian populations, and in the state of Louisiana, where the laws are still based on the Code Napoleon rather than the English Common Law.
Factoid: Dutch Obtain Prime Real Estate\n In 1626, the Dutch governor gave the natives goods reputedly worth $24 for Manhattan Island. Apparently, the natives didn't use a real estate agent and, therefore, weren't apprised of the land's market value.
Factoid: Dutch Beaten But Not Forgotten\n Holland and England were commercial and colonial rivals. Naturally, England considered the Dutch colony at New Amsterdam an obstacle to English ambitions to colonize the Atlantic seaboard of North America. In 1664, an English naval force appeared before New Amsterdam and compelled the Dutch governor to surrender the colony. To this day, however, Dutch influence remains in New York State, as evidenced by place names and by a number of old homes and churches.
Factoid: Mercantilism\n The English, like the other European governments, accepted the mercantilist doctrine that colonies were founded to serve and enrich the mother country. Colonies were to assure the continued supply of raw materials and markets for English manufacturers, trade for English merchants, and revenues for the English treasury. This attitude, however, failed to show exactly how the colonies (and colonists) were supposed to benefit from mercantilism.
Factoid: Jamestown's No Club Med\n The site of the Jamestown settlement was hardly a paradise. One of the most notable features of the low, marshy area was its bloodthirsty population of malaria-carrying mosquitoes.
Factoid: Something Fishy's Going On\n Since fishing was the largest initial source of food for the colonists, it is very probable that the main dish served at the first American Thanksgiving Day feast was eel.
Factoid: Penn's Charter and Subsequent Experimentation\n William Penn received a charter to Pennsylvania as payment for a sum of money owed to him by King Charles II. Penn envisioned his colony not only as a business venture, but also as a place of refuge for his persecuted coreligionists, the Quakers. In 1682, Penn came to the New World for two years to personally supervise the colony, which he called a "Holy Experiment." Penn himself planned the "city of brotherly love," Philadelphia.
Factoid: Incan Sex Discrimination\n In Incan society, a man was an adult at the age of 25, while a woman reached adulthood by the age of 18.
Factoid: Traitors Sing After Death\n Incan society had a very unusual punishment for treason; after death by slow torture, the bones of the traitors were made into musical instruments.
Factoid: Columbus Leads Double Life\n Christopher Columbus is buried in two separate places; one of his "bodies" rests in the Seville Cathedral, the second lies in Ciudad Truijillo Cathedral in the Dominican Republic.
Factoid: Incan Currency Worthless\n Although the Incas had the most efficiently organized civilization in the New World, they lacked one commodity that most Europeans viewed as essential -- money. Their entire economy was barter-based.
Factoid: Incan Queen Wicked\n History reports that most qoyas (or queens) were paragons of virtue. There was one qoya, however, who could have given the Medicis a run for their money. Cusi Chimpu, aside from being a drunk who was "too fond of parties," poisoned her husband so she could marry the emperor. Cusi Chimpu probably knew she had made enemies during her social climb; she kept a bodyguard of a thousand men and a thousand women.
Factoid: The Gregorian Calendar\n Today's calendar was worked out by Pope Gregory XIII in the 1580s. Until then, the Julian calendar (invented by Julius Caesar in 46 BC) was used. That calendar, however, had years that were eleven minutes, 14 seconds longer than the time it takes the Earth to make an orbit around the sun. So, 1600 years later, the calendar was ten days ahead of the seasons. By papal edict, October 5, 1582 was made October 15, and "leap years" were instated. Catholic countries adopted the new calendar right away, but most Protestant countries didn't use it until the 1700s; Britain in 1752; and Russia in 1918.
Factoid: Cervantes' Story\n His "Don Quixote" is one of the world's most translated books, but author Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra had an equally fascinating life. He fled from Spain to Italy after killing a man in self-defense, became a soldier, and enlisted in the Venetian fleet that fought at Lepanto in 1571. He was also a Turkish galley slave for five years, sailing around northern Africa.
Factoid: The Last New Continent\n Less than a hundred years after the discovery of the New World, Dutch navigator Willem Jansz set sail on the Duifken ("Little Dove") for New Guinea in search of gold. Upon reaching the island, he turned south and found land again at Cape York peninsula in northern Australia. The landing party reported "wild, cruel black savages." Dubbing the site "Terra Australis Incognita" (Unknown Southern Land), it became known simply as Australia.
Factoid: Japanese Isolation\n After Tokugawa Ieyasu became Shogun (military dictator) of Japan in 1603, his family line ruled from Edo (renamed Tokyo) until 1868. Christian missionaries, who were at first welcomed, began to be persecuted in 1612 out of fear and they, along with European traders, were gradually driven out of Japan. By 1641, only a single Dutch trading post on a Nagasaki Harbor island remained. Thus, Japan was virtually isolated from the West until the U.S. forced a trade treaty at gunpoint in 1854.
Factoid: What's Metal?\n Although Mayan civilization had developed a complex, arcane method of writing, it knew nothing of the use of metals. The Mayas' furniture, simple and rudimentary, consisted of stone benches, a few fiber mats, and some painted pots. There was also a special flat stone for grinding corn into meal.
Factoid: What's Cooking?\n The Mayas had carved vast areas out of the central American forests to grow maize (corn) for cakes and soup. They also grew cotton for spinning and weaving, and cultivated gardens of sweet potatoes, cocoa, pawpaws, green beans, and avocados. Their only domestic animal was the turkey. One of their natural resources didn't revolutionize Europe for a long time, however -- rubber.
Factoid: Stick That in Your Meat and Cut It\n As the beginning of the 1500s approached, table manners in Europe were still evolving. Meals were generally served at the family table at 9 a.m. and 9 p.m., with butcher's meat reserved for special occasions. It was considered bad manners to share a plate or goblet (except with one's spouse), or to dip one's fingers in the sauce. Well-equipped households also had the latest thing -- forks (the two-prong variety, that is, used upright to hold large pieces of meat about to be cut -- three-prong forks were still a rarity).
Factoid: Deluxe Weddings\n In Columbus' day, Italian weddings had become so extravagant and ostentatious that conservative citizens protested. Authorities regularly passed laws limiting the number of guests that could attend or courses that could be served at the traditional wedding breakfast. (The cook had to present the menu to the authorities showing no more than three courses and twenty-five place settings.) Even forbidding the wearing of expensive clothes was tried. Alas, such ordinances proved impossible to enforce, and the rich continued to have lavish weddings.
Factoid: Not That Liberal\n During the Renaissance, the free Italians enjoyed their liberal society, but sacrilege was not tolerated. When a sacred vessel was stolen from a church or a chamber pot emptied near a statue of the Virgin, the offenders were caught and immediately hanged from the nearest bell tower.
Factoid: German Jews\n Even as the New World was being discovered and explored, the Jews of Nuremberg were segregated and made to live in a ghetto (called the judenviertel, or Jewish quarter) that was chained off at night. The Jews' main occupation in the city was usury (which brought long-lasting resentment), and it was at this time that Yiddish (a mixture of archaic German and Hebrew) developed as a language among Jews.
Factoid: The Noble Ladies\n In the early 1500s, Spanish noblewomen followed a very rigid and sober routine: Rise very late and have only a glass of ice water before going to church. A cup of hot chocolate awaited her return home before receiving her confessor, followed by a light lunch and a siesta until 2 p.m. (winter) or 4 p.m. (summer). Awakening to a cold snack, she would make her social calls afterward (by torchlight), returning home in time to take a light supper before going to bed.
Factoid: Pueblo Population Decline\n Drought, disease, slavery, and pillaging of the Indian villages caused a drastic shift in demographics in the American Southwest. Of the hundred or so pueblos that dotted the area at the coming of the Spanish conqueror Coronado in 1540, only about fifty were still occupied a century later.
Factoid: Man of Many Names Visits Pueblo Indians\n The Spanish conquistador, Don Diego JosÈ de Vargas, persuaded the defiant Pueblo Indians to surrender amicably to Spanish rule in 1692. He was hailed as a savior and a peacekeeper. When the Indians rebelled again a year afterward, Vargas crushed their revolt and had scores of their leaders shot.
Factoid: Salvation\n The Christian doctrine of salvation was foreign to the Indians. For example, as far the Pueblo Indians were concerned, the hereafter lay below, not in a heaven on high. They all expected to return to life in the underworld regardless of what they had done on Earth.
Factoid: Settlers Link Disease to Providence\n Some New England settlers saw themselves as instruments of Providence. John Winthrop, son of the governor of Connecticut, insisted that the diseases that ravaged the native tribes were God's way of clearing "our title to the place."
Factoid: The Brass Badge of Courage\n Indians who fought on the side of the English in King Philip's War were awarded brass "peace" medals by the colonists. The English benefited greatly from Indian assistance; a Native American ally reportedly fired the shot that killed King Philip of Spain.
Factoid: Who Needs the Orient -- We've Got Furs\n What lured most of the Europeans deeper into the New World was not the elusive treasures of the Orient but assets that were closer and every bit as rewarding: furs. The choice pelt was the rare black fox; in 1584, just one of the skins of this animal fetched 100 pounds at a market in London.
Factoid: Beaver Brims Bring Big Bucks\n In 1600, the beaver was almost extinct in Europe. When it was discovered that the American Northeast had a seemingly endless supply of the animals, it motivated further interest in ventures to the New World. Beaver fur was especially coveted in the making of broad-brimmed felt hats. The colder climate which endowed the American beavers with thicker fur made them more valuable to traders.
Factoid: Indian Naming Conventions\n Aside from wool and cotton, metal also defined the Europeans for the Indians. The Indians coveted metal knives, axes, and hatchets. They also valued the softer metals, such as copper or brass, which could be made into ornaments. As a result, the Indians sometimes referred to the newcomers as "knife-men," "iron-men," or "cloth-men."
Factoid: New Uses Found for Beaver Fur\n The fact that beaver fur could be traded for nearly anything caused a decline in the foraging and handicrafts of the Indians around the Great Lakes and Northern interior. As one Indian trader explained to a Frenchman, "The beaver does everything perfectly well. It makes kettles, hatchets, swords, knives, bread. In short, it makes everything."
Factoid: Huron and Iroquois Call Off War, Spar Instead\n When the Frenchman Samuel de Champlain allied with the Huron Indians in the early 1600s, he hoped that the alliance would serve to keep the Iroquois Indians at bay. When he joined the Huron in an attack on an Iroquois village, however, he found that the Huron were more interested in sparring with their opponents -- taking prisoners instead of killing them. When he urged the Hurons to set fire to the Iroquois village, they declined, instead waiting for the Iroquois to emerge from the fort to skirmish with them.
Factoid: Wampum Stock Rises\n Wampum beads were cylindrical beads made from shells that could be made into bracelets and belts. Strung in standard lengths, they became units of currency in the European fur trade. The Indians valued these beads so highly that the Europeans eventually established a wampum factory on Long Island to satisfy the demand.
Factoid: Don't Mess With the Franciscans\n The royal benefaction that gave the missions of the Franciscan friars independence from secular control was taken seriously. In 1613, Father Ordsqez, chief among the Franciscans, objected so violently to the collection of tribute from the Indians by civil authorities that he excommunicated Governor Peralta, then had him arrested and thrown in chains when he tried to leave for Mexico City.
Factoid: Iberian Settlement\n When King Philip II of Spain bought and "conquered" the Portuguese throne in 1581, he made several shrewd political moves to win favor there. He upheld the liberties of the Portuguese people, nominated no Spaniards to Portuguese offices, and kept their overseas trading empire strictly Portuguese. This union endured until 1640.
Factoid: William "The Silent"\n William I of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange, struggled to free Holland from the rule of Spain and gained sovereignty of the northern Netherlands (modern Holland) in 1583, a year before he was assassinated by Spanish agents. His moniker, "The Silent," was earned when he learned of, and kept secret, the plans by France's King Henry II to massacre all the Protestants of France and the Netherlands while he was a French hostage in 1559.
Factoid: Modest Dwellings?\n In India, the Taj Mahal at Agra was built, from 1632 to 1653, to the order of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan. It was created to be a tomb for his beautiful wife.
Factoid: Depressing London, the Plague\n In the 1660s, a new outbreak of bubonic plague, the last and worst in a series dating back to the 1300s, befell London. Raging from 1664-5, over 75 thousand people died and almost as many fled the city.
Factoid: Depressing London, the Fire\n In 1666, a fire broke out in a bakery near London on September 2 and blazed away consuming the city's wooden structures for a week! Most of the city was destroyed, including 13 thousand houses, St. Paul's Cathedral, 84 churches, and more. The blaze was finally stopped by blowing up buildings to make gaps the fire could not cross. Interestingly, the king, Charles II, and his brother, the duke of York (later James II), personally assisted in fighting the fire.
Factoid: The Warlord\n During the forty-three-year reign of Russia's Peter the Great (1689 - 1732), only one year passed without a war. These wars strained Russian resources so much that both nobles and peasants alike could be drafted into the army, and even the church bells of Moscow were melted down to make cannons for the army.
Factoid: Down With the Governor\n The last Dutch governor of New Amsterdam, Peter Stuyvesant, was an obstinate dictator. After incorporating New Amsterdam as a city, he let no one share power. So, when the English attacked the city in September 1664, the citizen militia refused to obey his orders to resist. Stuyvesant was so unpopular that the English took the city without firing a shot. They renamed it New York after James, the duke of York.
Factoid: Bewitch?\n In 1692, the famous Salem (Massachusetts) witch trials were held before Judge Samuel Sewall. The scare began when a black slave girl, Tituba, told stories of voodoo (a West African spirit religion). Over the next year (after which the scare ended), she and eighteen others (mostly women) were found guilty of witchcraft and killed; about 150 others were imprisoned. Cotton Mather, a colonial preacher, led the prosecution.
Factoid: Value of Glass Rises in New World\n During their forays into the New World, Spanish explorers brought cut glass beads with them. The Indians mistook these beads for Jadeite stones, which they valued highly. Consequently, the Spanish were able to trade the near-worthless beads for large quantities of gold.
Factoid: Prometheus Brings Fire, Quetzalcoatl Brings Chocolate\n The drink "chocolatl" was considered by the Aztecs to be the drink of the gods. According to legend, Quetzalcoatl stole it from his brother gods and brought it to Tula, the capital city of the Toltec, and taught the Toltec women how to grind the cacao beans to make chocolate.
Factoid: Hummingbird Speaks, Aztecs Listen\n According to legend, the Aztecs came from a place called Aztlan (probably somewhere in the southeastern part of the present-day United States) in the 12th century, following the advice of their god Huitzilopochtli. He spoke to them in the shape of a hummingbird, saying "tiui," or "go." They then started on their long wanderings, which lasted two centuries, until they finally arrived in the Valley of Mexico.
Factoid: Aztec Chocolate Recipe\n Aztec made "chocolatl," or chocolate, the following way: They would grind cacao beans in a mortar with a few boiled grains of corn and then mix this with water. This mixture was beaten with a spoon or whisk until it was frothy. Aromatic spices such as vanilla, black flower, and honey were often added.
Factoid: Chocolate Goes to War\n Chocolate was well respected by the Aztecs. It was indispensable to a good meal, and its energy value was so well known that Aztec warriors carried it together with their black beans and corn when they went off to war.
Factoid: Sailors Speak of Sword Steel on Ships\n Most ships carried swords, cutlasses, and pikes to be used in case natives or enemies tried to board the ship. The difficulty of keeping gunpowder dry on a ship in rough weather, and the danger of it exploding if placed near the galley fire to dry, made steel more popular with the sailors than firearms. The pike and crossbow did well enough against enemies who had nothing more than bows and arrows.
Factoid: Chinese, Please\n The Age of Exploration saw the decline and fall of the Ming Dynasty in China. In its last 50 years, the Ming Empire was weakened by war with Japan's Hideyoshi, who sought to subjugate Korea and China. Poor governmental administration and high taxes in China led to the rise of the Manchus, who were united by their brilliant leader, Nurhachi. In 1616, he proclaimed the Chin Dynasty and fought a civil war with the Ming, eventually winning after almost 30 years.
Factoid: Christians in China\n At first, China's Ming Dynasty, noted for its supremacy of Confucian scholars and its emphasis on training in Chinese classics, rejected all incursions of Christianity. In 1582, though, the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci arrived in Macao and won the respect of the Chinese by his knowledge of mathematics and astronomy. After 20 years, he and his followers were permitted to reside in Peking where they had a privileged place at court. It seems the Chinese liked the technology for casting cannons that Ricci had brought over from Europe.
Factoid: My, Oh, Mayan\n Native Americans had never heard of the Julian calendar, which later evolved into the Gregorian calendar. The Mayans, however, had developed an elaborate calendar that was more accurate than the Julian calendar.
Factoid: Mayan Census\n At the time of the Spanish conquest of Central America, the Mayan population was roughly 500 thousand.
Factoid: Potato Over Maize\n The Incan civilization, which grew up around the Andes mountains in South America, was not based on cultivating maize, as the Mayan and Aztec civilizations were. Maize grows poorly at high altitudes; instead of maize, a mountain plant, the white potato, was the staple of the Incan civilization.
Factoid: Spanish New World Census\n By 1565, the Spanish Empire in the New World consisted of 200 settlements with a total population of 150 thousand people. It stretched from Argentina to California.
Factoid: A Swedish Colony?\n The Swedes had a trading post on the Delaware River from 1638 until 1655, when it was occupied by Dutch forces that had come down from New Netherland.
Factoid: English Colonial Policy\n Although they were the last ones to set up colonies in the New World, the English can claim one "first." They were the first to send the least desirable elements of their population (religious dissenters, rogues, vagabonds, and beggars) to the New World as a matter of policy.
Factoid: Primitive Peoples?\n During the Age of Exploration, the peoples of sub-Saharan Africa were considered very primitive. Most of the peoples in this region did not use the wheel or plow. Instead of cities, people lived in small, localized communities (tribes) of common descent. Furthermore, most of the sub-Saharan African peoples were neither Christian nor Moslem, but, instead, practiced their own polytheistic religions.
Factoid: When in Rome...\n Stefano Infessura, chronicler of Rome in the age of Pope Innocent VIII, claimed, on the basis of the 1490 census, that the population of Rome was less than 50 thousand people. Of Rome's populace, 6800 were courtesans (honest prostitutes) "in addition to concubines and brothel prostitutes."
Factoid: Big Business in Rome\n City leaders in Rome formally protested when, in 1566, Pope Pius V wanted to exile all courtesans and prostitutes from the city. They argued with the pope that the expulsion of the prostitutes and those who depended on them for their livelihood would reduce the city's population by at least 25 thousand persons -- about half the city!
Factoid: Renaissance Women\n Bindle described the regular practice of Venetian courtesans, as "taking six or seven lovers, assigning to each a certain night of the week when she dines and sleeps with him. During the day, she is free to entertain whomever she wishes so that her mill never lies idle and does not rust from lack of the opportunity to grind grain. Each lover pays a monthly salary."
Factoid: Cosmetic Success\n The cosmetics industry in Renaissance Italy was big business. Any woman who could afford to used huge quantities of creams, rinses, depilatory lotions, unguents, balsams to bleach their skin, and special tinctures for turning hair a brilliant blonde. "Painters never equaled the colors women painted themselves," remarked Tommaso Garzoni.
Factoid: Smallpox\n The first "invasion" by the Europeans into the New World was not composed of soldiers, but of germs. Smallpox broke out in Santo Domingo in 1493 and appeared in 1519 in besieged Mexico City, even before Cortez got there! Smallpox also broke out in Peru in the 1530s, before the arrival of Spanish soldiers. In addition to smallpox (which hit Brazil in 1560 and Canada in 1635), measles, influenza, dysentery, leprosy, typhoid, elephantiasis, venereal diseases, and plague (the first rats are said to have reached America in 1544-6) also bedeviled native Americans.
Factoid: Global Census Figures\n In 1650, the world's population is reasonably estimated to have been about 500 million people, of which 100 million resided in Europe (including Russia), a like number in Africa, 260 million in Asia, 13 million in America, and the rest spread out over the Pacific. In only 100 years, the world's population increased by 50%, with virtually all of the growth in Europe and Asia.
Factoid: Siberian Express\n When Moscow conquered Siberia in the 1500s, the Russians moving east were led by salt merchants, fur hunters, and Cossacks.
Factoid: Eat Stones\n In 1585, in Naples, a man-made famine was caused by the massive exporting of grain to Spain. Local bakers were reduced to making bread "di castagne e legumi" (using chestnuts and pulses). One grain-hoarding merchant, Giovanni Vicenzo Storaci, who faced a mob shouting that they would not eat that bread, shouted back "Mangiate pietre!" (Eat stones!). The Neapolitan mob seized him, murdered him, dragged his mutilated body around the city, and finally chopped his corpse into pieces.
Factoid: Pyramids of Corn\n Maize grows quickly, needs little tending (only 50 days per year), and is edible even before it ripens. Using irrigation to supplement rainfall, two harvests per year could be obtained. Thus, the peasants of maize-growing native societies had plenty of free time. The theocratic totalitarian governments of these societies made use of this "free time," which was spent laboring to create massive public works similar to the Egyptian type. Without maize, these wonders would not have existed -- they were made possible only because the basic foodstuff of maize can virtually produce itself.
Factoid: Food Trade\n From the Old World to the New came rice, wheat, sugar cane, and the coffee bush. From the New World to the Old came maize, potatoes, haricot beans, tomatoes, manioc, and tobacco. Of course, there was some cultural resistance. In southeastern China, for instance, maize is despised to this day.
Factoid: Slow-Growing Corn\n Maize was not an instant hit in the Old World. Although maize was known by at least ten different names in the Balkans, in order to evade taxation, it was only grown in gardens and lands far off the main roads. It did not fill wide-open spaces in Europe until 200 years after its arrival from America.
Factoid: The Anti-Potato Reaction\n Like maize, potatoes were not immediately embraced as a foodstuff in the Old World. Rumors would break out wherever potatoes were grown. Some claimed that potatoes transmitted leprosy, others that potatoes caused flatulence. This latter myth even found publication in the "Encyclopedie" of 1765, which noted: "But what is a little wind to the vigorous organs of the peasants and workers!"
Factoid: Fighting Over Potatoes\n One reason the potato eventually gained favor among the peasant farmers of Europe was its ability to survive a war. Unlike wheat, an army could camp all summer on a potato field without destroying the autumn crop. Where wars raged, so did the introduction of potato farming in Europe.
Factoid: Turkish Diet\n Even as the Ottomans consolidated their empire from the Balkans to Persia, and from the Levant across North Africa, their diet changed little. Moderation and frugality dictated that dried beef was not a food only for soldiers, while, from the 1500s through the 1700s, the average family in prosperous Istanbul only ate meat at the rate of one sheep per year. One traveler in 1693 noted, "the way the Turks live is one of continual penance. Even the richest meals are composed of bad bread, garlic, onion and sour cheese; when they add boiled mutton it is a great feast for them. They never eat chicken or other fowl, although they are cheap in that country."
Factoid: Table Settings\n It was first during the 1500s that guests were actually provided a knife, spoon, and glass as part of a table setting. Prior to that, they were expected to bring their own. The two- and three-pronged dinner forks were new inventions from Italy at this time and caught on slowly. One German preacher called the fork "a diabolical luxury. God would not have given us fingers if He had wished us to use such an instrument." It would not be until approximately 1750 that the fork became a common item at the table. (No forks and almost no spoons appear on any painting of The Last Supper, for instance, before 1600.)
Factoid: Salt and Religion\n People have always viewed salt as essential. Roman soldiers were paid partly in salt (in Latin, "salari," from which our modern payday vernacular of "salary" emerges). During the reformation, most of the salt mines in Europe were in Catholic countries. The northern European fisherman, who were Protestants, required the greatest quantity of the precious stuff. Even during the religious wars, however, the salt continued to flow -- to the great profit of the governments and merchants who owned and transported salt.
Factoid: Raising a Glass to the Natives\n Native Americans suffered greatly from the alcohol in which they were encouraged to indulge. Their civilizations lost their ancient frameworks of taboo and let the temptation to alcohol wreak havoc, especially after 1600. State revenues from New Spain (Mexico) show that the sale of "pulque" (alcohol) to the natives was equal to half the revenue obtained from silver mines. The French and English were no better, trading brandy and rum, respectively, to the natives they encountered.
Factoid: Coffee, Tea, or Hot Chocolate?\n These three stimulating drinks arrived in the Old World within a century of each other during the Age of Exploration. All three came from abroad: coffee was Arabian (originally Ethiopian); tea was Chinese; and chocolate came from Mexico. Like most new things, at first, these beverages were not all welcomed. Coffee, for instance, suffered from doctors' rumors that it was an antiaphrodisiac and a eunuch's drink.
Factoid: Governments and Tobacco\n Government prohibitions against tobacco are not new. The first laws passed to restrict or prohibit its use swept the world shortly after tobacco was introduced from America: England in 1604, Japan in 1607-9, the Ottoman Empire in 1611, the Mogul Empire in India in 1617, Sweden and Denmark in 1632, Russia in 1634, Naples in 1637, Sicily in 1640, China in 1642, and the Papal States in 1642. Of course, these laws were all ignored.
Factoid: Armed Armada\n In 1588, Spain's "Invincible Armada" set sail for the Netherlands and then went on to invade England via the English Channel. The Spanish Armada carried 2,431 cannons (934 of these were iron; the rest were the more expensive bronze type), 7,000 arquebuses (early guns), 1,000 muskets (newer guns), 123,790 bullets and shot (roughly fifty rounds per gun), in addition to all the powder necessary to fire these weapons.
Factoid: The Cost of Cannons\n Artillery was expensive, even after it was built and supplied with ammunition. The bill for maintaining the 50 cannons the Spanish had in the Netherlands in 1554 was over 40 thousand ducats per month. In contrast, a galley at that time cost about 500 ducats per month to maintain. Moving these cannons required a "large train" of 1,014 horses and 575 wagons (with another 4 horses each) in addition to a "small train" of 473 horses for the mounted troops. Therefore, moving these 50 Spanish cannons required a total of 4,777 horses, more than 90 horses per cannon.
Factoid: Christian Cannons For Muslims\n The Turkish war effort under Suleiman the Magnificent was largely supplied by Christian artillery. The Turks seized approximately five thousand artillery pieces from Hungary in the period from 1521 to 1541. This artillery gave the Turks a devastating advantage over the rest of the Islamic world and in their wars with Persia.
Factoid: First Editions Sweep Europe\n By 1450, soon after the invention of movable type, the printing press was here to stay. Paris saw its first printed book in 1470, Lyon in 1473, Poitiers in 1479, Venice in 1470, Naples in 1471, and Cracow (long the capital of Poland) in 1474. By 1500, there were 236 towns with their own print shops.
Factoid: Turkish Navy Hits the Sand\n The Turks launched several fleets on the Red Sea, notably in 1538, 1539, and 1588. Because there was no Suez Canal at this time, however, these fleets were transferred to the Mediterranean by being first dismantled, then carried overland across the Sinai isthmus on the backs of camels, and finally reassembled on the other side.
Factoid: The Real Early Explorers\n Many people had explored the world before Columbus. The Phoenicians sailed around Africa at the bidding of an Egyptian Pharaoh over 2,000 years before Vasco de Gama did. Irish sailors discovered the Faroes in about 690. In about 759, Irish monks landed in Iceland, which the Vikings rediscovered 100 years later. Erik the Red reached Greenland by the end of the 10th century, and Norsemen lingered there for hundreds of years.
Factoid: Engineers\n The profession of "engineer" emerged slowly during the Renaissance. An engineer of the 1500s would be concerned with military matters, and would hire himself out as a freelance architect, hydraulics expert, sculptor, or painter. There were no formal schools of engineering before the mid-1700s.
Factoid: Lost Inventions\n During the Age of Discovery, many inventions were pioneered that didn't catch on because they were far ahead of their time. Baltasar de Rios proposed to build a large-caliber cannon that could be dismantled and transported in separate pieces on the backs of a few hundred soldiers. In 1635, Schwenteer set forth the principles of the electric telegraph with which he claimed, "two individuals can communicate by means of the magnetic needle."
Factoid: Lost Inventions\n During the Age of Discovery, many inventions were pioneered that didn't catch on because they were far ahead of their time. An American inventor, Bushnell, invented the submarine. Duperron, a French military engineer, invented the "military organ," or machine gun, in 1775. Newcomen's steam engine, invented in 1711, had gained little acceptance 50 years later.
Factoid: Money\n Money, in the form of coinage, was a fairly new concept to Japan under the Tokugawas; the old money, rice, remained commonly in use. In truth, barter remained the primary mode of exchange over enormous areas of the world between the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries. Europe's metal money proved inadequate because, like barter, there was not always enough of it to go around. The result was the rise of paper money (credit). Germans in the 1600s mocked this new wealth on paper, calling it "Herr Credit."
Factoid: Trading in Africa\n Along the African coast, sea shells were a form of money. The best-known shells used for this purpose are the "zimbos" of the Congo shores. "The zimbos," wrote a Portuguese in 1619, "are very small sea snails having no use and no value in themselves. The barbarism of earlier times introduced this money which is still used today." Even more interesting, zimbos have remained a medium of exchange in Africa up through the 20th century!
Factoid: Trading in The Cold Climates\n In Iceland, there were centuries-old prices established in its people's particular medium of exchange -- dried fish. According to regulations of 1413 and 1426, 1 fish was worth one horseshoe, 3 fish could buy a pair of women's shoes, 100 fish were worth a barrel of wine, 120 fish could buy a cask of butter, and so forth. In Russia and Alaska, furs, rather than fish, equated to wealth. This form of "soft gold" was used to pay taxes and the governments of these regions, in turn, used furs to pay their debts and the salaries of their employees.
Factoid: Counterfeiting\n Native Americans used little cylinders cut from blue or violet sea shells as their money. Threaded on a string, these cylinders formed "wampum," which European colonists also used in trade until 1670. In the 1800s, counterfeit wampum was produced out of glass paste by European workshops, a practice that eventually led to the total disappearance of this old money.
Factoid: Precious Metal Coins\n In Europe, specie (coinage) was made out of gold, silver, and copper. Gold coins were primarily used by princes, large merchants, and the church. Silver coins were used for most ordinary transactions, while copper took care of the numerous small transactions of daily life. Copper coins were known as "black" money because, when mixed with a little silver, they blackened quickly.
Factoid: Gold and Silver\n Ancient theoreticians often tried to fix the relative value of gold and silver as gold having twelve times the value of an equal weight in silver. Due to the influx of these metals from the New World, this ratio slowly fluctuated. From the 13th century to approximately 1550, the value of silver slowly increased as a result of the quantities of gold pouring into Europe from the Sudan, Hungary, the Alps, and, later, America. From 1550 to 1680, modern mining techniques resulted in silver flooding the currency market, making gold relatively scarce. In 1680, gold was discovered in Brazil, and the silver-to-gold value ratio stabilized at about sixteen-to-one.
Factoid: The Gold of Europe\n Before the arrival of precious metals from America, Europe had approximately 2,000 tons of gold and 20,000 tons of silver. Between 1500 and 1650, according to official figures, fleets from the New World brought 180 tons of gold and 16,000 tons of silver to Seville alone.
Factoid: Urbanization During the Age of Discovery\n If towns are considered settlements of 400 or more inhabitants, then 10% of the English population was living in towns in 1500, and 25% in 1700.
Factoid: Colonial American Census\n In 1700, Boston had seven thousand inhabitants, Philadelphia four thousand, Newport 2600, Charleston 1100, and New York 3900.
Factoid: Japanese Census\n By 1750, Japan was already well on the way to urbanization. Out of a population of 26 million, 22% were already living in towns.
Factoid: The Rock of Gibraltar -- Hic!\n Algerian pirates were able to take Gibraltar by surprise in 1540 because they knew the local customs. The pirates chose the time of the grape harvest when all the inhabitants were outside the walls asleep in their vineyards.
Factoid: Ottoman Census\n Population growth picked up in the Mediterranean during the 1500s, partly as it recovered from the long decline caused by the Black Death. From 1500 to 1600, the population of the Ottoman Empire grew from roughly eighteen to 27 million with its people fairly evenly spread out over the Empire's European, Asian, and African territories. By 1600, France had roughly 16 million people, the Italian States about 13 million, and Spain only eight million. Istanbul grew from a small city to one with a population of 700 thousand during the 16th century (larger than Paris, Naples, or London).
Factoid: Ottoman Jews\n Ottoman fiscal policy and the growth of trade with Europe made Jews important within the cities of the Ottoman empire. Jews were influential as bankers and money lenders (to the government, in particular), and as tax farmers. At a lower level, Jews were also important as craftsmen and dealers in precious metals, as traders in Baghdad, and as exchange merchants in Tunis and Algiers (many of these were Spanish Jews fleeing the Inquisition).
Factoid: Flaying\n Flaying, the cutting off of skin, was the favorite form of torture in the 1600s. Among its victims was Saint Bartholomew. He became the patron saint of shoemakers precisely because of the skin that was removed from him.
Factoid: The Black Death\n Transferred by the fleas on black rats, bubonic plague has a very high mortality rate (among people and rats); a rate of approximately 90% of infected cases has been recorded. In humans, the plague typically enlarges the glands in a person's groin, armpits, or neck. The disease-causing organism then rapidly multiplies in the bloodstream, causing a high temperature and death from blood poisoning.
Factoid: Plague Prevents North American Exploitation\n The Black Death was truly a worldwide epidemic. From England, it spread south to Africa, east to China, and north to Russia and Scandinavia. Many suspect that ships carried the infection to the Viking settlements on Greenland founded by Erik the Red in the 10th century. Weakened by plague and a resupply problem, the last Viking settlers disappeared in the 1400s after repeated Eskimo attacks. Greenland became an unknown country again, until it was rediscovered by John Davis in 1585.
Factoid: Syphilis\n The first great outbreak of syphilis occurred in Europe in the late 1490s and, from there, spread throughout the world. Syphilis may have originated in America, coming to the Old World on Columbus' ships via natives from the West Indies, or it may have originated in Africa, arriving in Spain and Portugal via black slaves. Girolamo Frascatoro gave the disease its modern name (which became popular toward the end of the 1700s) when he published a long poem in 1530 entitled "Syphilis sive Morbus Gallicus." Thus, "The French disease" or "great pox" was ultimately named after a fictional shepherd, Syphilis.
Factoid: The Spread of Syphilis\n During the Age of Discovery, while the Black Death had been around for ages, syphilis was a new disease. It first appeared in England in 1496, India in 1498 (brought by Vasco da Gama's crew), Poland in 1499, Russian and Scandinavia in 1500, and Canton in 1505. Only much later did it reach Japan (1569), Iceland (1753), and the Faroe Islands were free of the disease until 1845.
Factoid: Sufferers of Syphilis\n Among those who suffered from syphilis, which was more virulent in its early days than it is now and which, in those days, could be transmitted by a kiss, were: Charles VIII and Francis I of France, Pope Alexander Borgia and his nephew Peter Borgia, Toulouse-Lautrec, and Ivan the Terrible. The latter went particularly insane and cruelly killed thousands of people while he was Tsar of Russia.
Factoid: Highest Heels\n To protect their feet from puddles in the streets, Venetian women wore special shoes called "zocoli," which were basically shoes with stilts or fancy elevator shoes. In the 16th century, these unique shoes enjoyed a brief popularity in fashion-conscious areas outside waterlogged Venice.
Factoid: Clean Underwear\n Underwear came into general use in the 13th century. It wasn't until the latter half of the 18th century, however, that changing underwear on a daily basis became customary for men.
Factoid: Mister Manners?\n In 1530, Erasmus published "De civilitate morum puerilium" ("Manners for Children"), the first etiquette book. Based on classical literature, scholarly sources, and folk wisdom, this work aimed to teach all children how to behave themselves in most social situations. Erasmus' book of manners inspired countless imitations and variations over subsequent centuries.
Factoid: The Obligatory Will\n Wills were not always what they are today and what they were in Roman days -- legal mechanisms for transmission of property. Wills had reappeared as common practice in the 12th century, and, until the end of the 18th century, they served another function as important as distributing one's property -- they were quasi-sacramental in nature. Wills were required by the church, under pain of excommunication, and contained a series of pious clauses that included declarations of faith, the redressing of wrongs (and debts), forgiveness of injuries, instructions for burial and the funeral procession, as well as charitable contributions to the church. Theoretically, those who died intestate could not be buried in a church or cemetery.
Factoid: De Soto's Water Burial\n Hernando de Soto, the great Spanish explorer, died of an unknown disease in Florida in 1542. His followers, fearing that natives would kill them if they found out how de Soto died, weighted his body down and threw it into the Mississippi.
Factoid: Conquistador Fiction a Hit\n The successes of early explorers spawned some of the earliest novels in Western Literature. These "novels of chivalry" described the adventures of conquistadors and influenced several generations of settlers, explorers, and conquerors. Cervantes' parody Don Quixote destroyed the genre and became far more famous than the books it lampooned.
Factoid: Moorish Conquistador Slain\n Although the conquistadors often prided themselves on their Castilian purity, one famous conquistador, Estaban, was a black Moor. Estaban accompanied a disastrous 1526 expedition to remove Cortez from Mexico and was killed in 1539 while exploring the American Southwest as an advance scout. Estaban was treated as a lesser member of the expedition; his surname was never recorded.
Factoid: Mutant Buffalo Spotted\n The first report of the North American buffalo describes this beast as: "an animal with a single horn in his forehead curved toward his chest, from which grows a straight spike that makes him so strong that he breaks everything he runs into."
Factoid: Pizarro Seeks Spice\n Francisco Pizarro, the conquistador who conquered Peru, spent his last major expedition seeking cinnamon, not gold.
~~1493
1493*Inter Cetera Divina Published!\n Rome: Pope Alexander VI, a Spaniard, issued a bull dividing the New World between Spain and Portugal on May 4th (revised on June 28th). This edict draws an imaginary line from the North Pole to the South Pole 100 leagues west of the Portuguese-discovered Azores and Cape Verde Islands. West of this boundary is the area of Spanish influence, east of it the New World belonging to Portugal.\n While the line is far enough west to legitimize Portugal's claim to Brazil, the northern powers (England, France, and Holland) do not consider themselves bound by this agreement.
1493*Turks Invade Dalmatia and Croatia!\n Vienna: The rising Turkish tide is swelling through the Balkans. A direct threat to Austria, the ascendancy of the Turks could spill over into Poland and Italy if not checked.\n New Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, fresh from his honeymoon with Bianca Maria Sforza, held a press conference in which he was asked about the Turkish problem. "We believe that the Austrians are the wall that will stop the Turks. However, we support the pope and will be assisting in the Crusades to keep the Turks in check." A spokesbishop for Pope Alexander VI acknowledged the pontiff's gratitude and also reaffirmed His Holiness' concern over the rising Turkish tide.
1493*Lucrezia Borgia Weds!\n Rome: It's not often that the pope has a daughter, but Pope Alexander VI has a small Venus. Lucrezia Borgia, daughter of Roderigo Borgia (the pope), now 14 years old, has made a society marriage to Giovanni Sforza. This ties His Holiness to the Holy Roman Empire since Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, has recently married Bianca Maria Sforza and invested Lodovico ("Il Moro") Sforza with the duchy of Milan.\n Interestingly, Lucrezia's brother, Pope Alexander's son Cesare Borgia, was also made a cardinal this year at the tender age of 18. "Nepotism seems to be running rampant in the Catholic church," remarked France's Charles VIII, who has been preparing an invasion of Italy this year.
1493*It's in the Book\n Augsburg: In what future generations might dub "The History of the World, Part I," Hartmann Schedel, at age 53, has recently published the book that tells it all. His "Nuremberg Chronicle" is an illustrated world history from the Creation to the present. Scholars are wary to embrace the work, which has been published in both Latin and German, as definitive, but it is presently in great demand for the libraries of the rich and famous throughout the continent. Rival authors have remarked that it is already out-of-date, as all of the information arriving from the New World has yet to be written in the annals of history.
~~1494
1494*Treaty of Tordesillas Signed\n Lisbon: Following the Inter Cetera Divina bull issued by Pope Alexander VI, Spain and Portugal have signed a formal treaty dividing up the New World. When Columbus returned to Europe last year from his exciting voyage of discovery, bad weather forced him to land in Lisbon, Portugal. Upon hearing his tales, King John II of Portugal was unconvinced that Captain Columbus had landed in the Far East. However, in the interests of Portugal, the king laid claims to the lands found on this Spanish expedition. After arbitration by His Holiness, both Portugal and Spain have formally worked out their differences as they continue to explore the New World.
1494*Invasion!\n Florence: Charles VIII of France has taken off the royal gloves and landed a blow in Italy. After the king entered Florence in the train of his troops, Piero de' Medici quickly found himself deposed in the king's favor. Not satisfied with these gains, Charles marched on Milan and then Rome, forcing Pope Alexander VI to take refuge in Castle Sant' Angelo. Charles' next objective appears to be Naples.\n Military experts are expecting a Habsburg-Valois war that could last up to 50 years now that the Treaty of Lodi (1454) is in tatters.
1494*The King's Shadow Exposed\n Verona: In the light of brilliant King Charles VIII of France, recent conqueror of several Italian cities, there is one person who must record his every move. Meet Aemilius Paulus of Verona.\n Aemilius has been honored by his recent appointment as official historiographer to Charles VIII of France. This local-boy-made-good story speaks well for the Italian educated class, especially as Charles VIII continues to move through the country on his war of conquest. Hopefully, the French king's history will be viewed through a proper Italian perspective.
1494*New Math Introduced\n Milan: Taking numbers to a higher level, Luca di Pacioli has been crunching variables for years and now presents his book, "Algebra." In addition to the usual x's and y's, a new mystery is unraveled by his in-depth study of cubic equations. Remarked the remarkable Luca di Pacioli, "These cubic equations bring a new dimension to 'Algebra.'" Mathematicians across the continent have pushed the preorders for this tome to surprising levels.
~~1495
1495*Diet of Worms\n Worms: The German city of Worms, frequent gathering place of the ruling elite, has recently hosted an imperial diet, which has brought surprising results. Proclaiming "Perpetual Peace," the diet has also set up an Imperial Chamber and Court of Appeals.\n Even as the structure of a more stable and prosperous government has been outlined, so, too, have new taxes. A new general tax of a common penny shall be levied to fill the Imperial coffers.
1495*War Continues in Italy\n Naples: King Charles VIII of France entered Naples and was crowned king of Naples before retreating northward along the Italian coast. In response to what is being billed as an unprovoked war, Pope Alexander VI has formed the "Holy League" with the aim of expelling Charles VIII from Italy. Unfortunately for the pontiff, God was on Charles' side at the Battle of Fornova, which ended the Holy League. Only Ferdinand II of Spain stands in the way of Charles now.
1495*France Defeated!\n Novara, Italy: The last hope of the pope rested in his Spanish king, Ferdinand II. King Ferdinand's forces have purged Italy of the French in a brilliant campaign, reconquering Naples, capturing the French fleet at Rapallo, and forcing the French army to surrender at Novara. Lodovico Sforza is working to broker a peace between France and the allies, in accordance with a new concept gaining popularity at court: establishing a "balance of power" in European politics.
1495*The French Disease\n After their stint in Naples, French soldiers under King Charles VIII left the town with more than loot. Beleaguered Naples also gave syphilis to these soldiers, who are spreading this epidemic all over Europe. Dubbed "The French Disease" by the many who have contracted this venereal disease, scientists are still working on a cure. Leonardo Da Vinci, who has just completed "The Last Supper," rendered his opinion on The French Disease: "What has God wrought to give an army of self-described 'lovers' such a weapon?"
~~1496
1496*Royal Wedding\n Rome: The duke of Burgundy is feeling a bit drunk after his heady marriage to the heiress of Spain. Yes, the most eligible bachelor in Europe, Philip "the Handsome," has married the lovely and gracious Juana. Philip, son of Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, has strengthened, yet again, the family ties to the courts of Europe. While many are skeptical that the marriage will last, most remark that the marriage is a masterstroke of political expedience.
1496*Wither Asia?\n London: Henry VII of England has commissioned Venetian navigator John Cabot (age 46) and his son Sebastian (age twenty) to discover a new trade route to Asia. The king has apparently decided that to let the Spanish and Portuguese dominate any new trade routes to the East would not be in England's best interest. Even though Christopher Columbus returned from his second voyage to the New World (after being gone for almost three years) with the disappointing news that a new trade route to the East was NOT found, Henry still wants England to lead the world in trade.
1496*Stick That in Your Pipe and Smoke It\n Lisbon: What's a pipe? Well, we may soon be finding out. Romano Pane, a globe-trotting monk who just returned with Christopher Columbus, has been granting interviews describing the New World's wonders. Foremost among them, in Romano's opinion, is a remarkable plant called "tobacco." The leaves of this plant seem to have miraculous properties and the natives found in the New World have been seen to "smoke" it.
~~1497
1497*Yorkist Challenge Checked\n Cornwall: Flemish boatman Perkin Warbeck, persuaded by Anglo-Irish Yorkists to assume the identity of Richard, duke of York (one of the princes murdered in the Tower of London), laid false claim to the English crown. Backed by English enemies H.R. Emperor Maximilian I, Charles VIII of France, Margaret of Burgundy, and James IV of Scotland, his September landing in Cornwall was quite unpopular. Though lacking the support of the people, King Henry VII of England captured Warbeck at Taunton after he left the sanctuary of Beaulieu Abbey.
1497*Lucrezia Swings\n Naples: At the ripe old age of 17, Lucrezia Borgia has divorced Giovanni Sforza and married Alfonso of Naples. No comment from her father, Pope Alexander VI, could be obtained, although official church doctrine has historically made divorce grounds for excommunication. After the recent conquest and reconquest of Naples by French and Spanish armies (who left with syphilis), no doubt the senior Borgia (now Pope Alexander VI) was hoping to strengthen his ties to southern Italy.
1497*Great Danes\n Copenhagen: King John II of Denmark has righted what Danes consider a great wrong. In a well-run campaign, Danish forces defeated the Swedish army at Brunkeberg. With the path open to Stockholm, John marched in and revived the Scandinavian Union. Now, with "unification" of the north, the Danish king has cast his eyes westward as news of the Cabots' discovery of Newfoundland reached Copenhagen. "Those cod banks along the coast there seem ripe for us to harvest," reported a high government official.
1497*Year in Review\n As the editors look back over 1497, they see Vasco da Gama's trip around the Cape of Good Hope on November 22 as the event of the year. Concurrent with this trip to India, Michelangelo unveiled his "Bacchus" sculpture. This was remarked upon at the weddings of King Manuel of Portugal (who wed Infanta Isabella of Spain) and Margaret of Austria (who married Infante John of Spain). In lieu of wedding gifts, attendees were asked to make donations to Florence Aid in hopes of relieving the great famine there.
~~1498
1498*The King is Dead. Long Live the King!\n Paris: All France mourns the news that Charles VIII has died at the tender age of 28. After his partially successful campaigns in Italy in 1494-5, the nation had great hopes for the young monarch. Charles will be succeeded by his cousin Louis XII, duke of Orleans. The 36-year-old duke is also a Valois, so the family lineage is uninterrupted since 1328. Many are speculating on what will become of Charles' widow, Anne of Brittany, and her huge tracts of land...
1498*No York Pity\n London: Perkin Warbeck, the "false Richard" of York who led the abortive rebellion against the crown with the backing of most of England's enemies, publicly confessed his treason against good King Henry VII. Seeking to temper justice with mercy, the king had Warbeck imprisoned in the Tower of London. Soon thereafter, an abortive escape attempt by Warbeck was made, but no sign of a vengeful beheading by the king in response can be seen.
1498*Inquisitor Minds Know\n Madrid: Unlike many whom he has encountered on the job, Inquisitor General of Spain, Torquemada, died of natural causes at the age of 78. During his career, Torquemada led the attack against heresy by converted Jews in Spain. It was in 1492 that Torquemada gave Spanish Jews three months to either accept Christianity or leave the country. Francisco Jimenez de Cisneros, age 33, is slated to take over the "Grand" Inquisitor's duties and will face a great challenge with the influx of Moors under Spanish rule in Granada.
~~1499
1499*Brother's Keeper\n Paris: In what eligible women of the court are quietly describing as a cynical political move, Louis XII continues to consolidate his new French throne by marrying the former king's widow, Anne of Brittany. This move will keep the duchy of Brittany to the northwest under French rule and away from the English. "There shall be no repetition of the Hundred Years' War," said a French minister who did not want his name released.
1499*French-Italian War Heats Up Again\n Milan: The French king, Louis XII, opened a new round of wars in Italy by entering Milan. In addition to engendering the first political cartoons, this move forced Lodovico Sforza to flee to Tyrol. Many are concerned that the pope might take another personal interest in this war, but if His Holiness does not, the resourceful Lodovico will no doubt come back on his own.
1499*Turks in Italy!\n Venice: A dark day for the Italian Renaissance looms as the Venetian fleet is defeated at Sapienza. Unprotected, Lepanto surrendered to the Sultan as panic spread through neighboring cities. Many look toward Pope Alexander VI to call a renewed crusade to beat back the invader. An informed source within Rome, however, reports that the pope is bankrupt and cannot afford to wage a new crusade until the church coffers have been replenished.
1499*Warbeck Loses Head\n London: Another escape attempt by "false Richard" of York Perkin Warbeck has revealed a conspiracy. With Warbeck's escape foiled near the Tower of London where he was imprisoned, there seemed little left for the lenient King Henry VII to do. Perkin Warbeck was tried and convicted of treason and finally executed. The thorn is off the rose of the house of York.
~~1500
1500*Year of Jubilee\n Rome: Pope Alexander VI, in what some are calling a desperate, cynical attempt to raise morale and money in the face of advancing Turkish forces, has declared 1500 as a "year of jubilee." Less jubilant are those who will be paying a new tithe; the funds raised by this tithe are earmarked for combating the Turks in a new Crusade. The pope had no comment, however, on the murder of his son-in-law, Alfonso of Naples, the second husband of his daughter, Lucrezia Borgia.
1500*Moorish Revolt Suppressed\n Granada, Spain: After new Inquisitor-General Cisneros introduced forced mass conversion of Moors (following in Torquemada's footsteps in dealing with Jews), a great revolt ensued. Spanish armies under Ferdinand of Aragon, however, have forcefully suppressed this Moorish revolt, leaving Cisneros to deal with his most illustrious prisoner, Christopher Columbus. The discoverer of the New World was arrested, put in irons, brought to Spain, and "rehabilitated" by the inquisition.
1500*Franco-Italian War Continues\n Milan: Lodovico Sforza recovered Milan from the French with only the tacit support of the pope. However, two months later, Louis XII reconquered Milan, capturing Lodovico Sforza and sending him back to France to face imprisonment. War-weary Italians are watching the French king to see what his moves will be next year, but many suggest that the pope doesn't have a prayer if Louis marches on Rome.
1500*Year of Firsts\n 1500 will be known as "the year of firsts." The first commercial colleges were founded in Venice; the first black-lead pencils were used in England; the first recorded cesarean operation performed on a living woman was done by Swiss pig gelder Jakob Nufer; the first annual horse race meetings began at Chester; and the first regular postal connection was made between Vienna and Brussels.
~~1501
1501*England's Henry VII Declines Pope's Request to Lead Crusade Against Turks\n London: Yes, the first of the Tudor rulers who braved Richard III at Bosworth Field to end the War of the Roses flatly refused a papal invitation to head a coalition of forces to purge the Holy Land. The Turks, who have recently taken Durazzo from Venice, have been expanding their hold over Palestine as their rule from Jerusalem continues.\n Pope Alexander VI, who imposed a tithe five years ago to raise funds with which to fight The Crusades, issued a statement from Rome: "We looked to England for leadership-in-arms that we might finally secure the Holy Land, but it seems that Elizabeth (of York, Henry's wife) will have none of it." His Holiness expressed dismay that King Henry would rather administrate than administer the final blow to the Turks.
1501*Moors in Granada Resist Spanish Army; King Ferdinand I Declares Granada a "Christian Kingdom"\n Granada: The wars between the Muslims and Christians have heated up again. Ever since Inquisitor-General Francisco Jimenez de Cisneros (successor to the famed Torquemada) introduced forced mass conversions of Moors two years ago, the great Moorish revolt in the Spanish province of Granada has continued to brew. It was only last year that Ferdinand of Aragon suppressed the Moorish revolt, which many suspect will begin anew now that King Ferdinand has raised the stakes by declaring the province a Christian kingdom. Massacres are expected as the Moorish reign in Spain falls mainly on the plain.
1501*Book Burning Bull!\n Rome: The burning of books against the authority of the Catholic Church was ordered by a papal bull. The edict from Pope Alexander VI is aimed as suppressing heresy before it can take root. In a press statement, the pontiff declared that "the tenants of the church have been subverted ever since the invention of the printing press some 50 years ago." By fighting "fire" with fire, His Holiness hopes to expunge confusion among Christians fomented by dissenters, present and future.
1501*Michelangelo Unveils New Statue\n Rome: With a tip of his beret to the Holy Scriptures, Michelangelo has pulled the drop cloth off his latest masterpiece in marble. Dubbed "David" (of "David and Goliath" fame), inside sources report that the model's name was actually David, but the secular connection is being played down. While some may look askance at this renaissance-in-art and decry the nudity of the figure, others see the deeper significance in the figure, with many expressing such thoughts as "Oh, that's what circumcision looks like!"
~~1502
1502*New Deal Sought\n Europe: Those peasants shuffling around Europe have given new meaning to the word "shuffle" as the popularity of card games continues to rise. While many seek to invent new games, the popularity of parlor and solitaire games is causing many to decry cards as a new form of vice. Denouncing card players as "slothful," movements have started seeking the prohibition of card playing in many cities throughout the continent.
1502*English Heir Dies\n London: It is a sad day in the court of King Henry VII. His eldest son Arthur died unexpectedly at the age of seventeen. Arthur, who married Catherine of Aragon last year, was a promising prince who was being trained as an able administrator. This leaves King Henry his daughter, Margaret Tudor, and his next son, Henry, as the surviving direct lineage to the throne.\n Although saddened, Arthur's grandmother, Henry VII's mother Margaret (countess of Richmond and Derby), could only talk about founding the professorships of divinity at Oxford and Cambridge.
1502*Voyages of Discovery Abound!\n Lisbon: Columbus sailed on his fourth voyage to the New World, discovering Honduras and Panama. Sources say that he will retire after this trip.\n Meanwhile, Vasco da Gama founded the Portuguese colony at Cochin, India, and Joao de Nova discovered the island of St. Helena (on St. Helena's feast day, of course!). Amerigo Vespucci, after his second voyage to the New World, has concluded that South America is an independent continent and not a part of India.
~~1503
1503*American Affairs\n Madrid: The Casa Contrataccion (Colonial Office) was founded in Madrid to deal with affairs in the American colonies. With his empire growing, King Ferdinand has delegated both colonial administrative affairs and a watchful governmental eye on the burgeoning New World. Christopher Columbus, the court's preeminent explorer, was not available for comment as he is away on his fourth expedition to America.
1503*Pope Alexander VI Dies.\n Rome: Back from exile after his bitter enemy Rodrigo Borgia became Pope Alexander VI, Cardinal Guiliano della Rovere, who dominated Borgia's predecessor Innocent VIII, has returned to become the new pope, Julius II. Pope Julius, a patron of Raphael, Michelangelo, and Bramante, has promised to reconquer the Papal States from France and to attack church corruption.\n In a related story, the promising scholar Nicolaus Copernicus was made a doctor of canon law at Ferrara at the age of thirty.
1503*Royal Entanglements\n London: Even as Henry VII's chapel in Westminster Abbey began construction, his son Henry, Prince of Wales, was betrothed to Catherine of Aragon. His daughter, Margaret Tudor, married James IV of Scotland, who stylishly introduced the pocket handkerchief to court.\n Of a less royal note, Lucrezia Borgia married for the third time. Her new husband, the duke of Ferrara, was unavailable for comment on his reaction to becoming Lucrezia's next-in-line.
1503*War!\n Venice: Perhaps the intriguing smile on da Vinci's latest masterpiece, the "Mona Lisa," can be explained by the Venetian abandonment of Lepanto. The Turks soon occupied the city and a peace treaty was signed between Venice and the Turks. All of Christian Europe is now looking toward the new pope, Julius II, to lead a Crusade against the Muslim invader.
~~1504
1504*Suez Canal Proposed\n Constantinople: In a surprise move, the recently defeated leaders of Venice sent ambassadors to those who vanquished them, the Turks. The Venetian diplomats are hoping to get Turkish consent for a grand trade route. They hope to build a canal between Egypt and the Levant through Suez. Although engineers are still studying the plan, many wonder if building such a canal is feasible.
1504*Postal Service Increases\n Madrid: Letters traveling between Vienna and Brussels have been flowing smoothly since postal service was established between those two cities in 1500. Now Madrid is being added as the third city to receive direct postal service. Regularly scheduled mail service is proving popular and many predict that other cities will soon want to have service extended to them.
~~1505
1505*Treaty of Salamanca\n Madrid: After the death of Isabella of Castile last year, Juana became heir to the Spanish province of Castile. In a move to keep his lands united, Ferdinand of Aragon has undertaken to rule Castile jointly with his daughter Juana and her husband Philip the Handsome. The couple has been married for nine years and had a son Charles, five years ago, who now appears destined to rule a greater Hapsburg empire.
1505*Pope Summons Michelangelo\n Rome: Pope Julius II, long a patron of Michelangelo, has summoned the artist to Rome. Inside sources report that Michelangelo has declined to accept any further projects in the immediate future, but promised the pontiff that he would attend to "that paint job at the Sistine Chapel as soon as possible." Meanwhile, Raphael unveiled his latest work, "Madonna del Granduca."
1505*Portuguese Expansion!\n Lisbon: Europe is witnessing a new era in Portuguese expansion. Upgrading their imperialist ambition from mere colonialism to what experts are dubbing "mercantilism," Portugal has founded factories on the east coast of Africa. Many expect that Portugal will focus its efforts to the East, toward India and China, instead of to the West, toward the New World. Jealous monarchs throughout Europe, however, have begun to cast covetous eyes on this small Iberian country.
~~1506
1506*Treaty of Windsor\n London: Archduke Philip's sister, Margaret of Austria, is betrothed to Henry VII's son, Henry (prince of Wales). The young prince, however, seems to have a wandering eye, and many doubt that the marriage will take place when Henry comes of age in three years. Philip, meanwhile, in a cynical political maneuver, has undertaken the extradition of Yorkist pretender Edmund, earl of Suffolk, who was promptly imprisoned in the Tower of London.
1506*An Italian Army?\n Florence: Enterprising statesman and political theorist Niccolo Machiavelli, now 37 years old, has created a Florentine militia. Observers studying the organization of this militia have noted that this is the first national army in Italy since the fall of Rome. The Republic of Florence lauded Machiavelli, but French spies are suspected of counting heads to estimate the strength of Florence's new army. Could another French incursion into Italy be near?
1506*Spanish Court\n Madrid: In order to stabilize the peace between France and Spain after the recent clashes of their armies in Italy, King Ferdinand II of Aragon (at age fifty-four) married the young Germaine de Foix, niece of Louis XII of France. The honeymoon was cut short, however, by the news that Philip the Handsome died. Because of the insanity of his widow Juana, a Council of Regency was nominated under Cardinal Jimenez, Inquisitor-General of Spain. Outside observers note that Spain is holding together nicely, despite all of the tumult.
~~1507
1507*Political Betrothal\n Madrid: In furtherance of an alliance between Spain and England, a marriage treaty for the Archduke Charles (age seven) to marry Mary, daughter of Henry VII, has been made. During Charles' minority, Margaret of Austria has been made regent of the Netherlands.\n A spokesperson for Louis XII of France expressed disapproval. "This is clearly another foreign ploy to isolate France diplomatically. If they want a fight, France will be ready."
1507*Martin Luther Ordained\n Erfurt: Two years after entering the Augustinian monastery at Erfurt, Martin Luther has become an ordained Catholic friar at age twenty-four. When asked what he will do next, he said he hopes to visit Rome someday but first wants to study at Wittenberg University. The energetic friar joined the brotherhood after a religious experience.
1507*Call It "America"\n Florence: In his recently published "Cosmographiae Introductio," Martin Waldseemuller proposes the New World be called "America" after his friend Amerigo Vespucci. The congenial fifty-three-year-old Vespucci traveled with Columbus on his 1499 and 1501 voyages to the New World. Recently Vespucci published reports that the New World is not, in fact, part of Asia. Maps with "America" are expected to roll out later this year.
1507*Cesare Borgia Dies\n Rome: The famed son of Pope Alexander VI, Cesare Borgia, passed away. Famed for using war, duplicity, and murder to seize much of central Italy, this brother to Lucrezia Borgia (duchess of Ferrara for the past two years) was a typical Renaissance "Condottiere." Rumors have it that his life will serve as the model for Machiavelli's planned political treatise, "Principe." The Borgia family came into prominence when Cesare's great uncle Alfonso de Borja became Pope Calixtus III.
~~1508
1508*Der Kaiser\n Augsburg: Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I assumed the title of emperor without being crowned by the pope. In a conciliatory move of acclimation, Pope Julius II confirmed as fact that, from now on, the German king would automatically become the Holy Roman Emperor. Electors of the Holy Roman Emperor in cities throughout Germany have looked at this latest papal proclamation with wary eyes. Many perceive that German princes are beginning to seethe with the same sense of revolt that Austrian peasants have been showing of late.
1508*League of Cambrai\n Venice: Success has bred contempt, or so the leaders of Venice believe. Margaret of Austria, the Cardinal of Rouen, and Ferdinand of Aragon have formed The League of Cambrai for the express purpose of despoiling Venice. Emissaries from the newly formed League have been sent to Rome to entreat with the pope. Meanwhile, France is mobilizing, possibly for another Italian campaign with Venice as the objective.
1508*Current Events\n Rome: Michelangelo begins to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and estimates it to be a four-year job.\n Raphael enters the service of his patron, Pope Julius II.\n Lodovico Sforza ("Il Moro," "The Moor") of Milan, patron of Leonardo da Vinci, dies at the age of fifty-seven in a French prison. He ruled Milan for 19 years until deposed by Louis XII.\n Jakob Fugger, an Augsburg merchant, became a hereditary knight of the Holy Roman Empire.
~~1509
1509*League of Cambrai Goes to War\n Paris: The League of Cambrai, formed last year to conspire against Venice, has enlisted the help of Pope Julius II, who promptly excommunicated the Venetian Republic. New knight of the Holy Roman Empire, Jakob Fugger, lends Emperor Maximilian I 170,000 ducats to finance the war. After payment, France declared war on Venice and beat the Venetians at the Battle of Agnadello. Also, since Constantinople was destroyed by a recent earthquake, the Turks are now viewed as less of a threat.
1509*The King Is Dead!\n London: King Henry VII of England passed away at age 52. His son, Henry (prince of Wales), age eighteen, succeeded him as King Henry VIII. Interestingly, after denouncing his marriage contract with Catherine of Aragon four years ago, the new king was quick to marry her, now his brother's widow. Many expect the new Queen to have a long and illustrious reign at her husband's side.
1509*Down With Jews?\n Munich: Persecution of Jews in Germany has been raised to a new level. Converted Jew Johann Pfefferkorn received authority from Emperor Maximilian I to confiscate and destroy all Jewish books, especially the Talmud. Although humanist Johann Reuchlin opposed the action, anti-Semitism is on the rise throughout the Holy Roman Empire.
1509*Slave Trade Opens\n Madrid: Seeing that American natives are not made for the hard labors required of settlers in the New World, Bartolome de Las Casas, the Roman Catholic bishop of Chiapas, has proposed that each Spanish settler bring a certain number of African slaves to the New World on each journey. Slave traders see this as encouragement to expand their businesses and are encouraging more outposts be established along the African coast.
~~1510
1510*Venetian Souls Saved!\n Venice: After their humiliating defeat by most of the great powers of Europe, the citizens' souls of the smoldering Republic of Venice have been saved. Recently, Pope Julius II absolved Venice from excommunication. This is seen as a move to check French power in Italy, which has been rising since Venice fell to French armies last year.
1510*Beheaded!\n London: It's a bad time for lawyers in England who displease the new king, Henry VIII. Sir Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley, lawyers and ministers to the English king, were recently beheaded. Although the king had no comment, it's been long known that their unpopular administration of crown revenues was cause for friction with King Henry. Henry's queen, Catherine of Aragon, was rumored to have remarked that beheading was a fitting farewell.
1510*Year in Review\n Europe: Leonardo da Vinci designs the horizontal water wheel and advances the principle of the water turbine.\n Portuguese acquire the rich city of Goa and Hormuz island, seizing the western end of Arab trading routes.\n Sandro Botticelli, famous Italian painter, dies at the age of sixty-six.\n Hamburg becomes a "Free City" within the Holy Roman Empire.
~~1511
1511*Balance of Power in Italy\n Rome: After excommunicating the entire city of Venice only two years ago, Pope Julius II formed a new Holy League with Venice and Ferdinand of Aragon to drive the French out of Italy. Tired of French "help," many powers in Europe are now looking for a way to keep the "expansionist" forces of Louis XII at bay. Henry VIII of England is also pledged to join the Holy League.
1511*Navy Reform\n London: Good King Henry VIII, after joining the Holy League formed by the pope to check French power in Italy, has turned his attention to the Royal Navy. Announcing sweeping reforms, a press release from His Highness declares, "We need a navy that will be the basis of British power for centuries to come." When asked what will happen to those who oppose these reforms, the king is said to have joked "heads will roll."
1511*Portugal Rules\n Lisbon: Extending their power ever farther east, Portugal has recently discovered Amboyna and conquered Malacca. Meanwhile, Diego de Velasquez de Cuellar occupied Cuba in the name of His Majesty, King Ferdinand of Spain. Last year, the North American east coast was explored to Charleston. Rising Iberian power overseas seems to be creating common ground between France and England in their jealousy of Spanish and Portuguese expansion and wealth.
~~1512
1512*Battle of Ravenna!\n Ravenna: French forces smite the combined Spanish and papal forces of the Holy League at the Battle of Ravenna. "Le chevalier sans peur et sans reproche," Pierre du Terrail, emerges as the hero of the battle. French defiance of the wishes of the Holy League is causing considerable consternation throughout Europe. An allied invasion of France seems imminent.
1512*Artistic News\n Rome: Michelangelo finishes work on the Sistine Chapel that was begun in 1508. Jibed the exhausted artist, "And NOW they tell me they wanted wallpaper!" Michelangelo's next project is rumored to be "Moses."\n Raphael completes his portrait of Pope Julius II.\n Hans Baldung-Grien unveils his "Mystic Pieta."\n Andrea del Sarto unveils "The Annunciation."
1512*Annals\n Europe: War breaks out between Russia and Poland!\n Portuguese discover Celebes!\n Copernicus publishes "Commentariolus," stating that the Earth and the other planets revolve around the sun.\n Amerigo Vespucci, namesake of "America," dies at age 61.\n Royal Navy builds one-thousand ton, double-deck ships with 70 guns each.\n German diet assembles in Cologne and undertakes further imperial reorganization.
~~1513
1513*Pope Dies!\n Rome: His Holiness, Pope Julius II, dies at age 70. Vowing to expunge the French threat from his deathbed, the pontiff passed away quietly. Giovanni de' Medici, age thirty-eight, was promptly elected Pope Leo X. While Giovanni is the first Medici to be elected pope, he is related to the great Lorenzo de' Medici, Italy's most brilliant Renaissance prince (who passed away in 1492). Pope Leo X is a magnificent patron of the arts and has already started a sculpture gallery at the Vatican.
1513*Treaty of Mechlin\n Paris: In defiance of French military supremacy, Pope Julius II (and, later, Pope Leo X), Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, King Henry VIII of England, and King Ferdinand of Aragon have signed a treaty where they all agree to invade France. Needless to say, King Louis XII of France was appalled by the news, citing the brilliant French victory last year at Ravenna as the reason for the alliance against him. King Louis vows to fight to the bitter end.
1513*Headlines!\n Europe: Peasants' revolts in Wurttemberg and Black Forest give pause to Emperor Maximilian I.\n Niccolo Machiavelli, fleeing from the Medici pope, publishes "La Mandragola," an Italian comedy.\n Michelangelo's "Moses" becomes part of the tomb of Julius II.\n Portuguese expedition under Jorge Alvarez reaches Canton, China. This is the first recorded visit to China since the start of the Ming dynasty in 1368.\n Juan Ponce de Leon discovers Florida.\n Vasco Nunez de Balboa crosses Panama isthmus and discovers the Pacific Ocean on September 26th.
~~1514
1514*French Queen Dies!\n Paris: Anne of Brittany, queen of France, died this year. Widower King Louis XII was quick to seize the political opportunity to make an Anglo-French truce by marrying Mary Tudor (sister of Henry VIII). In an effort to secure an heir, Louis XII's daughter Claude was married to Francis, duke of Angouleme. Thus improving the internal and external politics of France, Louis XII is securing a noble place for himself in history.
1514*Papal Fund Raising\n Rome: To help subsidize the war against France that he inherited from his predecessor, Pope Leo X is making money the old fashioned way -- selling the church. Recently, Albert of Brandenburg became archbishop of Mainz in exchange for 30 thousand ducats. Also, the House of Fugger secured the right to sell papal indulgences in Germany. Many religious thinkers, including noted friar Martin Luther, show indignation at the church selling indulgences, much less franchising their sale to third parties.
1514*All the News That Fits\n Europe: In the Russo-Polish war, Vasili III, ruler of Moscow, takes Smolensk.\n Selim I, sultan of Turkey, attacks Persia.\n Thomas Wolsey made archbishop of York at age forty-one.\n Pineapples arrive in Europe.\n Santiago, founded by Diego de Velasquez de Cuellar, becomes capital of Cuba.\n Peasants' Revolt in Hungary led by George Dozsa.
~~1515
1515*Church's Big Cannon\n Rome: The Lateran Council decreed their "De impressione librorum," forbidding the printing of books without permission of Roman Catholic authorities. While Rome has long sought to censor heretics, this preinspection of secular tomes takes papal influence to new levels. Many printers are expected to ignore the edict.\n Thomas Wolsey appointed cardinal and Lord Chancellor of England.\n Raphael appointed architect-in-chief of St. Peters, Rome.
1515*The King is Dead!\n Paris: A year after Queen Anne of Brittany died, she was joined by Louis XII of France. His nephew, the duke of Angouleme, who only married Louis' daughter Claude last year, succeeded Louis XII to become King Francis I. One of Francis' first acts was to conclude a formal peace treaty with England. Now the alliance against France is faltering since Francis I conquered Milan following the Battle of Marignano.
1515*Inside Politics\n Europe: The Treaty of Vienna, concerning the mutual succession of Hapsburgs and Jagellons, is signed between Emperor Maximilian I, Sigismund of Poland, and Vladislav of Hungary.\n Hapsburg Archduke Charles of Austria becomes governor of the Netherlands.\n Selim I, sultan of Turkey, conquers eastern Anatolia and Kurdistan.\n First nationalized factories open in France, including weapons and tapestry factories.
~~1516
1516*The King is Dead!\n Amsterdam: King Ferdinand II of Aragon died at age 64. He is succeeded by the young Archduke Charles. The new king, a 16-year-old, has been residing in the Netherlands as its newly appointed governor.\n In other news from the Netherlands, Franz von Taxis was appointed postmaster-general of the region. Imperial mail service has now been extended to Rome and Naples.
1516*French Political Triumphs\n Paris: King Francis I has been a busy diplomat. In a meeting between Pope Leo X and the French monarch, an agreement was reached that is being billed as the Concordat of Bologna. This agreement affords France independence in internal ecclesiastical appointments. Also, Francis I has inked a deal with the Swiss. The Treaty of Freiburg assures "perpetual peace" between the neighboring countries.
1516*The Chronicles\n Europe: Turkish expansion shifts away from Europe as Selim I defeats Egyptian forces near Aleppo and annexes Syria.\n Royal Birth: King Henry VIII of England was pleased to show the court his new daughter Mary. The king and queen will continue to try to produce a son.\n The color of fashion will be changing, experts predict, with the arrival of the dye indigo to Europe. Italian fashion houses prepare for next year's lines.\n Leonardo da Vinci has been invited to France by King Francis I. Can the Renaissance man be moved?
~~1517
1517*Archduke Charles Takes Command!\n Valladolid: Arriving in Spain as its new king from his post as governor of the Netherlands, Archduke Charles has already begun his wise administration of Spain. After his triumphal entry into Valladolid, Charles appointed his former tutor Guillaume de Chievres chief minister of Spain upon the death of Inquisitor-General Cardinal Jimenez. Also, a monopoly was granted to Florentine merchants for conducting the African slave trade to Spanish colonies.
1517*Nailed!\n Wittenberg: After being shocked at the decline of the Catholic church during his past visit to Rome, Martin Luther, after much introspection, has nailed his 95 Theses on the door of the Palast Church in Wittenberg on Hallowe'en day, challenging the church to reform itself. This action, a direct protest against the sale of indulgences, is expected to cause quite a stir in Rome as it has throughout southern Germany. Curiously, the pope had no comment, but did issue a bull for a five-year peace in Christendom.
1517*Year-in-Review\n Europe: Turks press into Arabia! Selim I captures Cairo and secures Mecca.\n On Cardinal Wolsey's orders, sixty rioters were hanged during the Evil May Day riots in London.\n It's wake-up-time in Europe as the first shipment of coffee arrives.\n Portuguese expansion continues as they open up a factory at Colombo, Ceylon and continue to press into Canton by sea.\n Ludwig Senfl made court composer to Emperor Maximilian I.
~~1518
1518*Wolsey Makes Peace!\n London: Christian Europe is sleeping easier after strenuous diplomacy by England's brilliant Cardinal Wolsey. Believe it or not, peace between England, France, Spain, the pope, and Emperor Maximilian I has been achieved. While some credit last year's bull by Pope Leo X pushing for a five-year peace in Christendom, many suspect that the rising Turkish tide in the Middle East is of considerably greater importance. Regardless of the cause, though, people are celebrating in anticipation of lower taxes.
1518*Luther Stands Firm\n Augsburg: Martin Luther, who last year posted his 95 Theses, stood his ground after being summoned by Cardinal Cajetan to the diet of Augsburg. Stating that his Theses were not revolutionary, Luther said the church had nothing to fear if it could reform itself. Upon Luther's citing that belief in God alone, according to Scripture, is sufficient for salvation, the church showed signs of worry that people could find salvation without paying their dues to the collection plate. "This issue will not rest here," Cardinal Cajetan commented.
1518*Der Zeitgeist\n Europe: Read all about it with the latest invention for shortsighted people -- spectacles!\n A dauphin to King Francis I of France, also named Francis, was born. France has an heir!\n Barbary states of Tunis and Algiers founded. Many suspect piracy imminent.\n In London, the Royal College of Physicians is founded.\n What's a Grecian urn? Less now that East Asian porcelain has begun to arrive in Europe. Domestic potters fear foreign imports.
~~1519
1519*Reformation Brewing?\n Munich: Although Martin Luther promised papal chamberlain Karl von Militz that he would write a letter of submission to Pope Leo X, Luther's attitude has not softened. In his Leipzig Disputation with Johann Eck, friar and teacher Martin Luther even went so far as to question the infallibility of papal decision!\n In a related story, Ulrich Zwingli, age 35, has begun preaching in Zurich. Many are hearing another voice for reform of the Catholic Church.
1519*The Year in Death\n Europe: Lucrezia Borgia dies, leaving many mourners, three husbands, and untold lovers. Often seen as a pawn in the family's struggle for power in Italy, Lucrezia was a beloved patron of the arts.\n Emperor Maximilian I, the Holy Roman Emperor, has died. His grandson, Archduke Charles (king of Spain), succeeds him and becomes Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Many expect a long reign from the new, nineteen-year-old Emperor.\n Leonardo da Vinci, genius of the Italian Renaissance, dies at age fifty-seven.\n On a happier note, born to the king and queen of France was Henry.
1519*New World News\n Mexico: Aztec ruler Montezuma received Hernando Cortez at Tenochtitlan, the Mexican capital. Cortez was viewed with awe by the natives, who had never seen horses (Arabians, in this case) before. While this first meeting was said to be cordial, many suspect that both parties are eyeing each other for a possible military conflict.\n Meanwhile, the Gulf of Mexico was further explored by Domenico de Pineda, who cruised from Florida to Vera Cruz.\n On behalf of Spain, Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan set out to circumnavigate the world.
~~1520
1520*Luther Excommunicated!\n Rome: Pope Leo X has had enough of flagrant friar Martin Luther. Issuing a bull of "Exsurge domine," Pope Leo X declared Martin Luther a heretic. Luther responded to the papal edict by burning it, along with several volumes of canon law, in front of a public gathering. Many religious observers see a line in the sand being drawn as support for Luther and Rome crystallizes. The Reformation Era is on and gaining momentum as Thomas Munzer begins the Anabaptist movement in Germany.
1520*English Action\n London: Charles V visited Henry VIII at Dover and Canterbury to discuss relations. No statement concerning progress was forthcoming.\n An Anglo-French Axis seems to be forming with the signing of a commercial treaty.\n King Henry VIII of England orders the building of bowling lanes in Whitehall, saying "they should learn more how to relax." In response, a Royal Library was founded at Fontainebleau by King Francis I of France.
1520*Charles V Profile\n Augsburg: The young Emperor Charles V seems to have it all. He inherited the Spanish crown, Sicily, and much of the New World from his mother, the Netherlands from his father, and Austria and the Tyrol from his grandfather. By bribing his way to the title of Holy Roman Emperor over Francis I, the Valois king of France, Charles also received the disjointed principalities of Germany. But with Valois challenges, nationalism in the Netherlands, Turkish advances, and the Reformation, his work will be cut out for him.
1520*Other Headlines\n Europe: Sultan Selim I dies and is succeeded as sultan of Turkey by his son, Suleiman I. "Magnificent," historians proclaim.\n Christian II of Denmark and Norway defeats Swedes at Lake Asunded and is also crowned king of Sweden.\n Raphael dies at age thirty-seven.\n Chocolate brought from Mexico to Spain.\n Portuguese traders found a permanent settlement in China.
~~1521
1521*Austro-Hungarian Moves\n Vienna: The rising Turkish tide under their new sultan Suleiman I is lapping at the very heart of Europe. With the fall of Belgrade to Turkish hordes, the sultan immediately began preparations to invade Hungary.\n The brother of Charles V, Ferdinand, was granted rights in Austria in exchange for marrying Anne of Hungary. Further cementing Hapsburgs' claims, Louis II of Hungary wed Mary of Austria. European Christians hope that the Hapsburgs will serve faithfully as the firewall of Europe against the resurgent Turks.
1521*Diet of Worms\n Worms: Martin Luther was cross-examined by Cardinal Alexander (the papal nuncio) before Charles V and the diet of Worms. Upon Luther's refusal to recant his opinions, Charles, who supports reform but remains a staunch defender of the faith and an ally of the pope, banned the excommunicated friar and made Luther an outlaw in Germany. While imprisoned in Wartburg, Luther has begun his German translation of the Bible.
1521*In the News\n Europe: King Manuel I of Portugal dies; his son, John III (The Pious) succeeds him.\n French begin manufacture of silk.\n Magellan killed in the Philippines by natives; Juan Sebastino del Cano assumes command and vows to bring expedition home.\n Cortez assumes control of Mexico after destroying the Aztec state following their revolt against his rule.\n Niccolo Machiavelli publishes "Dell' arte della guerra," his treatise on war.\n Charles V takes Milan, allies with England and pope against France.\n Gustavus Vasa leads Swedish resistance to Christian II's Danish rule of Sweden.
~~1522
1522*Pope Dies!\n Rome: Late last year, Pope Leo X died. Adrian of Utrecht, regent of Spain, has been elected Pope Adrian VI. Many had supported an Italian pope (presumably Giulio de' Medici), but intrigue was not enough to overcome Spanish influence at the Vatican.\n Many wonder what this pope will do in the face of rising anti-church feelings by so-called reformers like the Great Heretic, Martin Luther.
1522*The German Bible?\n Wittenberg: Whether hero or heretic, Martin Luther has kept the printing presses of Europe busy. Freed from Worms, he returned to Wittenberg and began to condemn "iconoclasts and fanatics" almost immediately. Soon thereafter, he had an important meeting with local printer Hans Lufft, concerning his German translation of the Bible's New Testament. Approximately 2,500 copies per year are expected to be printed in the foreseeable future.
1522*The '22 Review\n Europe: Turks drive over Rhodes -- Sultan Suleiman I takes the island from the legendary (now homeless) Knights of St. John.\n Italian scholar Alessandro Alessandri publishes a nonsequential encyclopedia.\n Gustavus Vasa becomes regent of Sweden; rebellion ends.\n Durer designs a flying machine for use in war (military experts scoff at the invention).\n Peru discovered by Pascuel de Andagoya, who led an expedition overland from Panama.\n Spanish forces conquer Guatemala; natives cowed by might of arms.
~~1523
1523*Scandinavian Scandal\n Stockholm: The unpopular Christian II, king of Denmark and Norway (and also, recently, Sweden), is out. He has been deposed by Danish nobles who have, in turn, elected Christian's uncle (the duke of Schleswig-Holstein) King Frederick I of Denmark and Norway.\n Gustavus Vasa is the new king of Sweden, dubbed King Gustavus I. Let's hear it for the land of the midnight sun!
1523*Another Year, Another Pope\n Rome: There was no stopping the Medici family this time. After failing to be elected pope last year upon the death of Leo X, Giulio de' Medici had all his ducks in a row when election time suddenly came around again after the untimely demise of new Pope Adrian VI. Enemies of the Medici family are starting a rumor campaign of foul play in the late pope's death, but nothing can be proven. May new pope Clement VII have a long and illustrious reign.
1523*The Year That Was\n Europe: Portuguese traders are expelled from China. Threat of "European devils" scares Chinese.\n English statesman Sir Thomas More is elected speaker of the English House of Commons.\n Spanish found town of Jamaica.\n In Florence, the first insurance policies for maritime commerce are issued.
~~1524
1524*Bad News for Catholicism\n Zurich: The so-called "Religious Reformation" is gaining momentum, much to the dismay of new pope Clement VII and Emperor Charles V. Here in Zurich, for instance, Huldreich Zwingli, who last year published his 67 Articles demanding religious reforms (such as Bible readings), has abolished Catholic Mass in the city.\n Meanwhile, German princes who have adopted the reformation have met at Ulm to defy Charles V. Martin Luther, for his part, has collaborated with Johann Walther to publish the hymnal "Geystlich Gesangk-Buchleyn."
1524*The Peasants Are Revolting!\n Bavaria: Emperor Charles V has a huge peasant revolt on his hands. Led by radical reformer Thomas Munzer, an Anabaptist who preaches revolution and a godly communistic state, the revolt, which started in the Black Forest, has spread north along the Rhine and south along the Danube into Austria. Assisting Munzer are Florian Geyer and Michael Gaismair.\n Martin Luther has denounced the rebellion, allying himself with the rich and powerful, publishing "Against the Thieving and Murdering Horde of Peasants" and urging merciless suppression of the rioters.
1524*The Year That Was\n Europe: French driven out of Italy -- the Chevalier de Bayard mortally wounded in battle at age fifty-one.\n James V becomes king of Scotland.\n Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama dies at age 55.\n Turkeys from South America make culinary debut at the English court.\n Denmark confirms the independence of Sweden under Gustavus I in the Treaty of Malmo.
~~1525
1525*Charles V Triumphant\n Augsburg: The combined force of German and Spanish troops (the latter armed with muskets) has defeated the French and Swiss at Pavia, making Emperor Charles V the master of Italy. Although captured, King Francis I of France was returned to his country to continue strengthening his rule at the expense of French nobility.\n Meanwhile, the Peasants' Revolt has been completely crushed. Its leader, Anabaptist Thomas Munzer, was executed as a heretic.
1525*Peace and Love\n Europe: Ending Anglo-French tensions, King Henry VIII and a representative of King Francis I have penned a peace treaty. Both sides wanted free hands to deal with other conflicts (the French in Italy, the English in Scotland).\n The sultan of Turkey, Suleiman The Magnificent, has reached a truce with the king of Hungary. Europe breathes a collective sigh of relief.\n Wedding bells ring for Martin Luther, who married former nun Katherine von Bora.
1525*Year-in-Review\n Europe: Grand Master Albert of the long ailing Teutonic Knights transforms Prussia into the decidedly secular duchy of Brandenburg. Albert has also made himself duke of Brandenburg.\n Mogul Emperor Babur leads 12 thousand armored horsemen across the Punjab plain of India and wins a great victory at Panipat. Next stop for the Mongols -- Delhi.\n King Henry VIII receives amazing gift of Hampton Court from wily English diplomat, Cardinal Wolsey.
~~1526
1526*Hungary in Tatters!\n Buda: Last year's "seven-year" truce failed to hold as a vast host of Turkish janissaries (infantry) and artillery under Sultan Suleiman The Magnificent crushed the Hungarian heavy cavalry at the Battle of Mohacs and now advances on Buda. King Louis II of Hungary falls in the battle. Pressburg (Bratislava) is declared the new capital of Hungary, and in the turmoil both John Zapolya (popular with Hungarians and a puppet of Suleiman) and Hapsburg king of Bohemia, Ferdinand of Austria (Charles V's brother), are crowned king(s?) of Hungary.
1526*Reformation Continues\n Germany: The roots of the reformation continue to grow strong and deep in Germany. After his recent marriage to former nun Katherine von Bora, Martin Luther has done another first -- a mass in German! Although such an action is consistent with his 95 Theses, many see this German mass as an attempt to regain the favor of the peasants that Luther lost by supporting the suppression of the Peasants' Revolt.\n Anabaptists settle down in Moravia, dub themselves "The Moravian Brothers."\n Jews are persecuted by both Christians and Muslims in wake of Hungarian ruin.
1526*In Other News\n Europe: Peace has broken out between King Henry VIII of England and King James V, the fifteen-year-old monarch of Scotland.\n A royal wedding between Emperor Charles V and Isabella of Portugal secures Iberian peace. The merging of the world's two largest empires is forseen.\n New card game, piquet, introduced to Europe. Temperate souls fear a rise in gambling as wealth continues to pour in from the New World.
~~1527
1527*Renaissance Ends!\n Rome: Imperial troops, who fight for the Catholic cause, with little to do after expelling the French from Italy, have marched on and sacked Rome. Over four thousand inhabitants were killed by the pillaging troops. Many artistic treasures were looted. Pope Clement VII has been imprisoned in Castle Sant' Angelo.\n Watching these events from his deathbed, Niccolo Machiavelli passed away at age forty-eight.
1527*Hapsburgs Reorganize Central Europe\n Prague: Emperor Charles V is allowing his brother, King Ferdinand, to do what he does best -- administrate and organize. After getting Austria in order, Ferdinand was crowned king of Bohemia in Prague. Sorting out the tangle of the Hungarian throne, Hungarian nobility has now backed Ferdinand as the sole king of Hungary. Wary eyes are turning to Buda, where the Turks are possibly planning another incursion into Europe.
1527*Reformation Continues Unabated\n Marburg: The first reformed religious university was founded this year at Marburg. This is seen as important in cementing the strength of the reformation in Germany, legitimizing the new Christian branches.\n Breaking news from Scandinavia indicates that the reformation has spread all the way to Sweden. King Gustavus I is even rumored to be considering conversion to an upstart Christian faith!
~~1528
1528*Reformation Wins, Loses\n Germany: In what seems to be increasingly a nationalistic movement as well as a religious one, the reformation, which recently spread to Sweden, has now invaded Scotland. No comment from King James V of Scotland was available.\n Balthasar Hubmair, an Austrian Anabaptist, was burned at the stake as a heretic at age forty-three.\n Educational reform in Germany was proposed by Philip Melanchthon, noted scholar and humanist, who is also leading the religious reformation.
1528*Henry Seeks Divorce\n Bridewell: In a speech at Bridewell, King Henry VIII explained to both highborn and low his reasons for seeking a divorce from Catherine of Aragon. Henry stated that his qualms about the validity of marrying his brother's widow should overrule scriptural objections to a divorce. The king's detractors suggest that the disruption of the Anglo-Spanish alliance, Henry's wish to secure better relations with France, and his lust for Anne Boleyn are the real reasons the king seeks a divorce.
1528*Bring Out Your Dead!\n London: A severe outbreak of the Plague has occurred in several cities in England. The smell of burning bodies is a cruel punctuation to frantic souls living their last hours in debauchery after being diagnosed with the disease. No cause for the Black Death has yet been found.\n In related news, Paracelsus, who lectured on medicine at the University of Basel last year, has published "Die Kleine Chirurgia," the first manual of surgery.
~~1529
1529*Call Them "Protestants"\n Speyer: Trouble continues to brew between the Catholic Church and reformers. A huge gathering of the intelligencia from both camps was held at the second diet of Speyer. The attending Lutheran minority was constantly outvoted by the Catholic majority's decision. So much so, that the reformers are now being known as protesters, or "Protestants."
1529*Wolsey Falls From Grace\n London: Dealmaker Cardinal Wolsey is out of favor after failing to negotiate a divorce for King Henry VIII. While His Holiness agreed to a trial at a special court in England with Cardinal Campeggio as his envoy, after reaching no conclusion Campeggio adjourned matters back to Rome. Livid at papal refusal to grant the divorce outright, Henry sacked Wolsey and replaced him as lord chancellor with Sir Thomas More.
1529*Vienna Besieged by Turks!\n Vienna: The Ottoman Turks under Suleiman the Magnificent have reached the zenith of their power, laying siege to King Ferdinand's Austrian capital at Vienna. Fortunately for Christianity, the long march from Buda and Suleiman's attempt to complete the siege of the city in a single season have checked the Turkish advance. Forced to lift the siege, Suleiman retreated back to the Hungarian plains.
1529*All the News That Fits\n Europe: Francis I of France and Charles V have made peace between the Valois and Hapsburgs by signing the Treaty of Cambrai. Dubbed "The Ladies' Peace," it was soon joined by England's King Henry VIII.\n For the first time ever, women have been seen on the stages of Italy. Is this the end of theater as we know it?\n Fortifications of Florence completed by Michelangelo.\n Luther and Zwingli meet at Marburg and argue about Holy Communion. Nonconformist Zwingli sees Communion as merely symbolic.
~~1530
1530*Big Year for Charles V\n Vienna: In what many call a crowning achievement, Emperor Charles V has now been formally crowned the Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement VII at Bologna. Many expect that this will be the last imperial coronation by a pope.\n Charles also reestablished the Knights of St. John, evicted from Rhodes by the Turkish invasion of that island in 1522, in Malta.\n Also, Charles' sister, Eleanor of Portugal, widow of Manuel, marries Francis I of France.\n Criminal codes and police regulations have been laid down for the Holy Roman Empire. By unifying civil codes, Emperor Charles V expects to help preserve order in an empire wracked by Muslim and Protestant threats.
1530*Confession of Augsburg\n Augsburg: In a failed effort to make peace and unite the Holy Roman Empire to meet the Muslim/Turkish threat, Charles V convened a diet at Augsburg to work out the differences between Protestant princes and the Catholic Church. Lutheran theologian Philip Melanchthon stood in for Martin Luther (still an outlaw) and stressed points of similarity between the Protestant and Roman Catholic faiths. However, Roman Catholic theologians in their "Confutatio," stressed differences, widening the schism.
1530*Schmalkaldic League Formed\n Schmalkalden: After the failure of the Confession of Augsburg to resolve the differences between Protestants and Roman Catholics, Protestant princes led by Philip of Hesse and the elector of Saxony are meeting in Schmalkalden (on their border) with the goal of forming a mutual defense pact. Should any of them be attacked for their religion, they shall all aid in defense. For the first time, a part of the Holy Roman Empire has declared open resistance to the emperor and his diets. A civil/religious war in Germany is being predicted.
1530*1530, the Year in Death\n Europe: It was a banner year for undertakers. Dying this year were many celebrities. England's noted statesman Cardinal Thomas Wolsey died after having been arrested for treason. Mogul Emperor Babur, who established a new dynasty in India, also died this year. Music lovers will note that Andrea Amati, founder of the Italian family of violin makers, passed away.\n One important birth occurred in Moscow: Ivan IV. When asked about the young Tsarovitch, many proclaimed his personality as "terrible."
1530*Also This Year\n Europe: Henry VIII's "Reform Parliament" continues to cut ties with the Catholic Church in Rome.\n Spinning wheel becomes common household item; Bible becomes most common household book.\n Noting the time differences of various degrees of longitude, Regnier Gemma Frisius suggests that noting the time can help explorers get and keep their bearings.\n Psychics predict coming of "The Great Comet," foreshadowing God's wrath at earthly religious conflict.
~~1531
1531*Civil War in Switzerland!\n Zurich: As predicted, religious strife between Roman Catholics and Protestants has grown violent. In Switzerland, the Protestants of Zurich ("Forest cantons") have fought an open battle with Catholic cantons at Kappel. The Protestants suffered a double defeat, not only losing the battle, but also their leader, Zwingli. Ulrich Zwingli, who published his 67 Articles demanding reforms including the removal of religious images, simplification of the Mass, and regular Bible readings, died at the age of forty-seven.
1531*I Am the Church?\n London: King Henry VIII of England has given new meaning to his title "Defender of the Faith" by having Parliament recognize him as the supreme head of the Church of England. The Roman Catholic Church has long stalled, then refused, to grant His Majesty the divorce he is seeking from the queen, Catherine of Aragon. This schism has also been cited as the reason for the fall of Lord Chancellor Thomas Wolsey and the rise of Sir Thomas More. While it is not clear that the clergy will submit to this change, royal mistress Anne Boleyn was delighted upon receiving the news.
1531*What's New?\n Europe: After 10 years on the throne, King John III of Portugal has earned his moniker "The Pious." Taking a page out of Spain's dealings with heretics, Portugal has instituted its own Inquisition.\n As predicted, The Great Comet (later Halley's) has crossed the skies of Europe. A wide outbreak of superstition is sweeping the continent, but most scholars agree that this sign from God is an indicator of his displeasure with wars and intolerance as they occur ever more frequently for religious reasons.
~~1532
1532*Portuguese Colonize Brazil!\n Sao Paulo Island: The Portuguese have established a permanent settlement at Sao Vincente, Brazil. Portugal's claim dates back to the Treaty of Tredesillas in 1494 and, six years later, to Pedro Alvares Cabral's discovery of Brazil. Although it took 32 years to establish a colony in Brazil, Pau Brazil, a red dyewood, which gave the country its name, is expected to be an exciting early export from this heavily jungled land. The Portuguese world empire continues to expand...
1532*Turks Checked in Hungary\n Hungary: Suleiman I wasn't magnificent enough to secure Hungary for the growing Turkish empire. Defeated in his attacks on Carinthia and Croatia, the Sultan's check is being billed as a triumph of Christianity. Few expect further Turkish campaigns in Europe as the sultan still has a vast empire to administrate. Some predict that a recession of the "Turkish threat" will allow the current schism in Christianity to increase even more rapidly.
1532*Changes in Religious Attitudes?\n London: Two shocking events have swept through England. In a surprise move, English clergy have submitted to King Henry VIII as the head of the Church of England. Apparently, Pope Clement VII isn't the only one who feels betrayed, as Sir Thomas More has resigned his position as Lord Chancellor in protest over the king's "sacrilegious" activities (among them, seeking a divorce). Rumors are rampant that King Henry is seeking a pliant candidate for the position of archbishop of Canterbury who will finally grant him the divorce he seeks from Queen Catherine of Aragon.
1532*European News\n Europe: John Calvin starts a Protestant movement in France. Pope laments further spread of heresy.\n Machiavelli continues to speak after his death with the posthumous publishing of what is sure to be a classic, "Il Principe" (The Prince). Rulers throughout Europe are said to be ordering their own copies.\n The first Latin - English dictionary was published. Author Robert Estienne's press statement, however, could not be interpreted, as it was written entirely in Greek.\n Francisco Pizarro leads first expedition from Panama to Peru.
~~1533
1533*King Henry VIII Excommunicated!\n London: As many have long expected, the schism between the pope and King Henry has resulted in the king's excommunication. After the king's secret marriage to Anne Boleyn, the king appointed Thomas Cranmer archbishop of Canterbury. Cranmer gratefully declared the marriage between the king and Queen Catherine of Aragon void and the king's marriage to Anne Boleyn lawful -- she was quickly crowned queen. Born to the newlywed couple this year was a daughter, Elizabeth, who many say is destined to rule.
1533*Pizarro Conquers Peru\n Although discovered only three years ago, the Incan empire has fallen to obscure adventurer Francisco Pizarro. Although Pizarro had a force smaller than that which Cortez used to subdue the Aztecs (fewer than 200 men), his cunning and treachery brought the native empire to ruin. By befriending Atahualpa, the usurper to the Incas' throne, Pizarro was able to capture and execute him during an Incan civil war. The high degree of organization in the Incan empire simplified the conquest of the rest of the empire.
1533*Headline News\n Europe: Peace between Suleiman I ("The Magnificent") and King Ferdinand of Austria is declared. Turkish threat to Europe wanes.\n Tsarovitch Ivan IV becomes ruler of Russia at age three. Ascension to throne of temperamental tike seen as "terrible."\n Latest invention of our compassionate western civilization, the lunatic asylum, takes root in Europe. Even though there is no medical attention at these facilities, families of disturbed persons are glad that they now have a place (such as it is) in society.
~~1534
1534*No Place Like Rome\n London: The rift between the English monarch, King Henry VIII, and the Catholic Church in Rome has reached an irreconcilable stage. With Parliament's Act of Supremacy as the answer to the pope's recent excommunication of King Henry, the English king has been declared the "supreme head of the Church of England."\n English ecstatic Elizabeth Barton, "The Nun of Kent," was executed at Tyburn for opposing the matrimonial policy of Henry VIII. This was seen as a defining, symbolic act of the London/Rome separation.
1534*Religious News\n Europe: Pope Clement VII dies at age sixty-nine. Cardinal Alessandro Farnese elected, becomes Pope Paul III.\n John of Leiden founds and leads a communist state of Anabaptists ("rebaptizers") at Muenster, Westphalia. Persecution is anticipated for this sect preaching nonviolence and the separation of church and state.\n Ignatius Loyola provides the papacy with a strong right arm by founding the Jesuit Order.
1534*From the Annals\n Europe: Jacques Cartier makes a voyage to North America, sighting the coast of Labrador (Newfoundland). Plans another voyage next year along the St. Lawrence River.\n Turks conquer Tunis, Baghdad, and Mesopotamia.\n St. Basil's cathedral built in Moscow.\n Michelangelo moves from Florence to Rome after completing the tomb of the Medici.\n A royal decree has been issued in England forbidding English farmers from owning more than two thousand sheep.
~~1535
1535*Muenster Massacre\n Muenster: After an invasion by the Hessian army, Dutchman John of Leiden's communist Anabaptist state has been laid low. With Catholicism prevailing in Muenster again, John of Leiden was tortured to death along with important followers. Most agree that it was his advocacy of communism and polygamy, rather than doctrinal opposition to infant baptism, that spurred the military response.
1535*Poo-pooing the Pope\n London: English clergy, in a show of unity with King Henry VIII, have renounced the authority of the pope and acknowledged that of the English king. One notable exception to the running of this religious tide is that of Sir Thomas More, who refused to take the oath of the king's supremacy. Although urged not to lose his head, Sir More was tried for treason and executed. In a related move, the study of canon law has been forbidden in Cambridge.
1535*Also in the News\n Europe: War breaks out between France and Spain after Francesco Sforza dies and Milan comes under direct Spanish control -- Italy seen as the battleground.\n Jacques Cartier explores the St. Lawrence River on his second New World voyage, discovers Quebec and Montreal.\n Charles V liberates Tunis from last year's Turkish conquest. Twenty thousand Christian slaves freed!\n Statute of Uses passed in England to curb the power of English landowners.
~~1536
1536*English Religion\n London: After an act of Parliament declared the authority of the pope void in England and in response to the recent royal decree that dissolved 376 religious houses in England, a rising of Roman Catholics in the northern counties dubbed "The Pilgrimage of Grace" broke out. The insurgents' goals include the removal of newly appointed Thomas Cromwell as Henry's chief minister, an end to the dissolutions, and the restoration of papal authority.\n English reformer William Tyndale was also burned at the stake this year, dying at age thirty-eight.
1536*English Politics\n London: While the former Queen Catherine of Aragon died quietly at age fifty-one, Queen Anne Boleyn was sent to the Tower of London and later executed this year. King Henry VIII married Jane Seymour (his third wife).\n Thomas Cromwell, Earl of Essex, was made Lord Privy Seal. An able administrator, he is largely credited with breaking papal power in England.\n The Act of Union joins England and Wales as Welsh representatives are admitted to the English Parliament.
1536*The Big Picture\n Europe: John Calvin, who this year published "The Institutes of Christian Religion," is taking his reform movement from France to lead Protestants in Geneva.\n Reformation creeps from Germany and Sweden to take root in Norway and Denmark.\n France invades Savoy and Piedmont; forms alliance with Turkey against Hapsburg rule in Spain and Hungary.\n Francis, the dauphin (royal heir) of France, dies at age eighteen.\n Michelangelo paints "Last Judgment" on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel.
~~1537
1537*An End of Grace\n London: With further uprisings in the northern English counties, King Henry VIII ordered the ruthless suppression of Roman Catholics, following the advice of new Lord Privy Seal, Thomas Cromwell. The "Pilgrimage of Grace" and other pro-Catholic uprisings that broke out in response to the separation of church (Roman Catholic) and state (England) "have been suppressed," said a royal spokesman. Insurrection leader Robert Aske of Doncaster was charged with treason and executed.
1537*Big Year for Science\n Italy: Sure as shootin', someone has made a science of bullets. Beginning what he calls "ballistics," Niccolo "Tartaglia" Fontana has published the first book on the subject.\n Looking to the stars, Paracelsus has published his "Grosse Astronomie," a modern manual of astrology. Those looking for signs of the future will want to investigate this crafty tome.\n Gerardus Mercator is making a name for himself as a mapmaker of repute. His first map of Flanders shows tremendous promise.
1537*The Way We Were\n Europe: The queen is dead! After only a year of marriage to King Henry VIII of England, Queen Jane Seymour died soon after giving birth to a son. The royal heir, Prince Edward, seems healthy enough and should one day rule England.\n Stalemate in Franco-Spanish war; Italian princes breathe a collective sigh of relief.\n The first conservatories of music are founded. In Italy, Naples is the site for a boys' music conservatory, while a girls' conservatory has opened in Venice.
~~1538
1538*Read It! "America"\n Florence: Gerardus Mercator, the rising star of cartography, has committed to his latest projections of the world a popular moniker. Accepting the popular nickname of the New World, his new maps bestow it with the name "America." Also, in recognition of the large sizes of the land masses that adjoin Panama, the New World has been further demarcated as North America and South America. Meanwhile, explorers await the latest Mercator projections...
1538*Truce is Declared\n Nice: In recognition of increasing internal threats to both sides by Protestant heresies, King Francis I of France and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V have reached an agreement on cessation of the hostilities that have threatened Italy for the past three years. Dubbed the "Truce of Nice," many suspect that it was brokered by Pope Paul III, who is looking for a figurative sword to wield against the Protestant Reformation.
1538*World Review\n Europe: Roman Catholics decry desecration as the systematic destruction of relics and shrines progresses in southern England. Even Saint Thomas a Becket's shrine at Canterbury was ravaged.\n James V of Scotland, supporter of Protestantism for financial and political reasons, marries Mary of Guise.\n Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada founds city of Bogota, Columbia.\n John Calvin is expelled from Geneva. Rumors circulate that he plans to settle in Strasbourg.
~~1539
1539*Truce of Frankfurt\n Augsburg: Holy Roman Emperor Charles V recognizes Protestant princes! Eight years ago, after the failure of the Confession of Augsburg to bring peace between the empire's Roman Catholic and growing Protest factions, eight princes and eleven cities formed the League of Schmalkalden for their mutual defense. It appears that Emperor Charles V is making a formal truce and recognizing this league in an effort to block them from aligning with enemy France. Protestants still fear Charles V's close ties to Pope Paul III, however, and fear that this truce will be short-lived.
1539*King Henry Sets Sights On Wife #4\n London: After prolonged negotiations by Lord Privy Seal Sir Thomas Cromwell, a marriage treaty was signed at Hampton Court. Beloved, thrice-married King Henry VIII of England is now betrothed to Anne of Cleves. While many see this as a strengthening of the king's position among German Protestants, few see any attraction between the two beyond the political one.
1539*Year-in-Review\n Europe: In Rome, famed artist Michelangelo has drawn up plans for redesigning the city. Excited architects rally to the idea.\n Spain annexes Cuba, naming it a Spanish territory. Spain has long been using the island as its principle base of operations in the New World\n Something new for the holidays: Strasbourg Cathedral has unveiled something new for Christmas -- a decorated tree, called a "Christmas tree." Many see it becoming a new tradition.\n Florida tourism saw its first visitor as explorer Hernando de Soto began to map the peninsula. Many wonders are rumored to be there, including a so-called "fountain of youth."
~~1540
1540*King Henry Marries, Annuls, Remarries\n London: In a rocky year for the institution of marriage, King Henry VIII of England fulfilled his contractual obligation and married Anne of Cleves. Unfortunately, the king disliked her looks, so the marriage was soon annulled by the convocation of Canterbury and York. The king had Sir Thomas Cromwell, Lord Privy Seal and Anne's matchmaker, executed. The king then married his fifth wife, the high-flying socialite Catherine Howard. Her uncle, Lord Treasurer Norfolk, succeeded the late Thomas Cromwell.
1540*Papacy Approves Jesuits\n Rome: Founded by the Spaniard Ignatius of Loyola and his six disciples six years ago, the Jesuit order received recognition from Pope Paul III. The Jesuit order is headed by a "general" who resides in Rome and entry into the order is difficult. Founded to be the pope's right arm and to perform missionary work beyond Europe, many expect the Jesuits to be employed in the pope's struggle against Protestantism.
1540*Venetian-Turkish Treaty\n Constantinople: A four-year war that began with an alleged Venetian insult has ended. Many Venetian-held islands and outposts in the Aegean and Adriatic seas were raided by the Turks as a Venetian fleet commanded by Andrea Doria and an Ottoman fleet under Barbarossa II sparred. After losing the naval battle of Preveza, Venice has ceded its Aegean islands and outposts in the Peloponnese to the Turks.
1540*Around the World\n Europe: Antwerp on the rise as a commercial city.\n Afghan rebel Sher Shah leads his forces south to victory and becomes the new emperor of Delhi.\n The discovery of pulmonary circulation of the blood was made by Michael Servetus.\n At Oxford and Cambridge, King Henry VIII founded professorships in civil law, divinity, Hebrew, and Greek. Catholics see this as a further entrenchment of a "false" religion under King Henry.
~~1541
1541*Age of Exploration!\n America: Spanish explorer Francisco Vazquez de Coronado, governor of Nuevo Galicia (in Mexico), has subdued the so-called Seven Cities of Cibola with 300 Spanish infantry and 1000 native allies as part of a fruitless search for legendary gold. Included in his discoveries this year was the Grand Canyon.\n Hernando de Soto, second-in-command when Pizarro conquered Peru, returned to Spain rich but returned again to the New World, leading 600 men with 200 horses in search of silver and gold. This year, he discovered the Mississippi River.
1541*A Protestant State?\n Geneva: French theologian Calvin returned to Geneva at the request of its Protestant leaders and created a new civil government subordinate to the church. The goal was to institutionalize Protestantism, giving it a clearly defined shape and enforcing a "reformation of manners" in Switzerland.\n In a related story, John Knox has begun leading a Calvinist Reformation in Scotland. Reports indicate that he is carefully chronicling the Reformation in Scotland.
1541*King Henry VIII At It Again\n London: Queen Catherine Howard, the king's fifth wife, was charged with premarital infidelity. Accused by Cranmer of having sex with a musician and a kinsman, she was sent to the Tower of London to await her fate. Her alleged paramours, Thomas Culpepper and Dereham, didn't have as long to wait. They were immediately summoned and executed.\n Also this year, King Henry VIII assumed the titles of king of Ireland and head of the Church of Ireland.
1541*Hungarian-Turkish War Breaks Out\n Buda: Suleiman I took Buda, conquered Pest, and annexed Hungary in response to the moves of Archduke Ferdinand who laid claim to Hungary when John Zapolya, king of Hungary, died. Informing Archduke Ferdinand that peace in Austria and Hungary could be bought with an annual tribute to the Turks, the Christian king could not accept the terms. Turkish forces are expected to build and march through the Balkans in the coming years.
~~1542
1542*Hail Mary, Queen of Scots\n Glasgow: At only six days old, the daughter of King James V of Scotland, Mary, has ascended the throne. Her father died recently after his army was defeated by the English at Solway Moss. Interestingly, Mary's mother, Mary of Guise, was not named regent of the newborn queen. Instead, James Hamilton, earl of Arran, was named regent.
1542*Shakeup Continues At English Court\n London: The good news for former Queen Catherine Howard was that she was released from the Tower of London after alleged premarital improprieties. The bad news for Catherine was that it was a short trip to the executioners.\n In a move that surprised no one, Lord John Russell has been made Lord Privy Seal in favor of Lord Norfolk (the late Catherine's uncle).
1542*World News\n Europe: In Rome, Pope Paul III has seen the wisdom of the Inquisition as a counter against heresy, and so has established an inquisition in Rome.\n Serving the pope, Francis Xavier arrived at the Portuguese colony on Goa as the first Jesuit missionary.\n Japan was entered by the first European, Italian adventurer Antonio da Mota. Portuguese traders see Japan as a land of economic opportunity.\n Tremendous tippler's tax on Bavarian booze perturbs peasants and princes alike.\n Hernando de Soto, explorer who discovered the Mississippi River, died on the river's bank.
~~1543
1543*Earth Revolves Around Sun?\n Frauenberg: Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, self-proclaimed "mathematician of the skies," died this year. His life's work, "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres," was soon published thereafter. His heliocentric theory states that the Earth moves around the sun and that the appearance to the contrary is caused by the Earth's rotation on its own axis. While this theory is not new, dating back to the ancient Greeks, many were surprised not to find this book's immediate inclusion on the Catholic Church's Index of Forbidden Books.
1543*Turks Press Into Hungary\n Buda: A carefully planned Turkish expedition left Belgrade and captured virtually every fortress between there and the Hungarian capital of Buda, including Grau and Stuhlweissenberg. Fortunately for Christendom, Suleiman I had to depart from the campaign early to deal with the Turks' Persian threat. The Sultan's beys (governors) have been left to continue the Hungarian campaign next year.
1543*Royal Weddings\n London: It's official -- King Henry VIII of England has married his sixth wife. This time, it's Catherine Parr, a woman of grace and intelligence. Twice-married already, Queen Catherine has already begun to tactfully persuade the king to restore the succession to his daughters, Mary and Elizabeth, to whom she has shown much kindness.\n On the Iberian peninsula, Philip of Spain married Maria of Portugal, bringing two families (each with vast empires) closer together. Seventeen years ago, Charles V married Isabella of Portugal.
1543*France Renews War\n Nice: King Francis I of France has made a deal with the infidel Turkish sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, to launch a combined invasion of Italy against Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. A joint French-Turkish naval force bombarded, besieged, and sacked the imperial town of Nice. Charles V responded by invading Picardy in northern France and made plans with his new ally, King Henry VIII of England, for a two-pronged invasion of France next year.
1543*Highlights and Headlines\n Europe: "The Spanish Inquisition has moved beyond mere Moors and Jews," commented an unnamed Protestant source, "and has begun burning Christians." Independent sources confirm that the first Protestants were burned at the stake this year by orders of the Spanish Inquisition.\n Portuguese traders have landed in Japan, bringing firearms and adding fuel to the fire between rival daimyos vying for supremacy.\n Charles V receives design for a steamboat from Spanish navigator and mechanician Blasco da Garay. While "novel," in the emperor's words, the steamboat was also deemed "impractical."
~~1544
1544*French Fronts Find Frenzy\n Turin: The Battle of Cresole, south of Turin in Italy, proved an inconclusive victory for King Francis I of France, despite the important role that French cavalry played in support of their infantry. The Anglo-Imperial invasion into northern France was stalled by poor coordination, allowing the French king to check their advance. Although King Henry VIII of England captured Boulogne, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V agreed to the Peace of Crepy, reaffirming the old status quo between them, with France giving up her claim to Naples.
1544*Turkish Beys At Hungary\n Croatia: Showing their remarkable military prowess even in the absence of their sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, Turkish beys (governors) have pressed the Ottoman campaign in the Balkans against the Hungarians led by Archduke Ferdinand. Among the Turkish victories this year were their captures of Styria, Carinthia, and Croatia. Hard-pressed, Ferdinand is seeking allies to fight the Muslim invaders, but is finding no takers.
1544*The Way It Is\n Europe: Pope Paul III calls for a general council in Trent next year. Many see this as a crisis meeting of Roman Catholic leaders to stop rising Protestantism.\n Silver mines discovered at Potosi, Peru.\n Sweden's Act of Hereditary Settlement fixes the succession in the male line of King Gustavus I.
~~1545
1545*Truce!\n Vienna: Archduke Ferdinand, brother to Emperor Charles V, has found himself hard-pressed in his war against the Turks in Hungary. Not finding any outside help in his war against the infidel invader of the Balkans, he has reluctantly sued for a truce with the Turkish sultan, Suleiman I (The Magnificent). Although eager to continue the fighting because they're winning, the Turks have accepted the terms so that they can concentrate on their other wars in North Africa and Persia. A formal peace treaty should be forthcoming, and we'll publish the terms once that information is released.
1545*Council of Trent Opens\n Trent: Drawing a religious line of battle with the Protestants, Pope Paul III has called Roman Catholic leaders, including the new Jesuit order, to Trent. Going beyond mere reform in what some are calling a budding "Counter-Reformation," no concessions on the worship of saints, clerical celibacy, and indulgences were made. Furthermore, justification by faith alone was condemned while transubstantiation and the equal authority of scripture and church doctrines were affirmed. Emperor Charles V, in a press statement, sees the sharpening schism as boding ill for Germany.
1545*The '45 Review:\n Europe: It's a boy! To Emperor Charles V was born a son, Don John of Austria. Also this year, the emperor's historiographer, noted Spanish author Antonio de Guevara, died at the age of 65.\n A new type of comedic entertainment is sweeping northern Italy. "Improvisational theater," where the comics appear on stage without prepared material, inventing words by their spontaneous wit, is all the rage among Italians.\n In Padua, Italy, Europe's first botanical garden was opened featuring many fascinating specimens from the Americas, Africa, and the Far East.
~~1546
1546*Civil War in Germany\n Regensburg: "The Schmalkaldic League," formed 15 years ago by Philip, landgrave of Hesse, and John Frederick, elector of Saxony, as a defensive alliance of Protestant princes within the Holy Roman Empire, "can no longer be ignored," a statement from Charles V reads. Although neither of Charles' armies were handy when he declared war at the pope's urging (armies are being formed in Italy and the Netherlands), few expect the League to pull together in time to win a quick military victory.
1546*Martin Luther Dies!\n Saxony: At age sixty-three, the once-Augustinian friar, has passed away. Luther, who was shocked at the worldliness of the church when he visited Rome in 1510, finally placed his historic 95 Theses before the church and was quickly and fiercely attacked by Roman Catholic officials. After publicly burning a papal bull of condemnation and a copy of the canon law, he was excommunicated in 1521. He published German translations of the Bible, married a former nun in 1525 (they later had six children), and directed a conservative reformation from Saxony, denouncing the extreme Anabaptist elements and not supporting the Peasant's Revolt of 1514.
1546*Much Ado for 1546\n Europe: Turkish forces occupied Moldavia (northeast Romania).\n In Paris, thirty-six-year-old Pierre Lescot begins to build the Louvre. Many expect it to take "generations" to complete.\n At Saint Peter's in Rome, Michelangelo, designer of its new dome, oversees the project through to completion.\n Florentine geographer Gerardus Mercator has issued a statement outlining his new theory that the Earth has magnetic poles.\n Health of King Henry VIII of England is called into question in a whispered campaign alleged to be coming from his detractors in Parliament.
~~1547
1547*The Kings Are Dead!\n Brussels: Both England's King Henry VIII and France's Francis I have died. Both monarchs were near 50 years old, and each is succeeded by their male heirs. In England, Henry's son by Jane Seymour (his third wife), Edward VI, age eleven and a sickly child, has ascended the throne with the duke of Somerset as his protector. In France, Henry II, age twenty-eight and a fanatic Catholic, has assumed the reins of the highest royal office. Both new monarchs expect a period of peace between their nations while they consolidate their administrations.
1547*Crowns of the East\n Moscow: Ivan IV, now 17 years old, has assumed the reins of power in Moscow. Dubbed "Czar" (or "Tsar," meaning Caesar), young Ivan has turned his eyes eastward to the vast lands in Siberia, Kazan, and Astrakhan. In a possibly related incident, Moscow was destroyed by fire.\n From Augsburg, a recent press release from the Hapsburg family counsel has proclaimed that the crown of Bohemia shall be heredity in the house of Hapsburg. Some German princes in the area are anxious that their own principalities should remain within their respective families and not be assumed by the Holy Roman Emperor's Hapsburg dynasty.
1547*Charles V Defeats Protestants\n Augsburg: In the Schmalkaldic War, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V has amassed his forces under the duke of Alva to combat the disunited Protestant princes, defeating them soundly in April at Muhlberg in Saxony after some League members defected to Charles' side. Both John Frederick of Saxony and Philip of Hesse, leaders of the Schmalkaldic League, which has been forcibly broken up, were taken prisoner and, no doubt, await a humiliating future.\n In Adrianople, the Hapsburgs have finally inked a five-year truce with the Turks.
1547*The French Chronicles\n Paris: In addition to the change in the monarchy, there is much news from France. Latin, for instance, has been replaced by French as the official language of French authorities. In another royal order, new King Henry II has joined Spain and Rome in their inquisition practices by creating La Chambre Ardente for the trial of heretics. Finally, French tabloids have picked up on a hot new prognosticator, astrologer Nostradamus, who, at age forty-four, has released his first predictions.
~~1548
1548*Fate of Peru Decided\n Lima: The brutal rule of Gonzalo Pizarro (son of Francisco Pizarro) in Peru has ended. The king of Spain sent Pedro de la Gasca as his royal representative to end the civil wars in Peru and to reestablish his authority. Gasca rallied both Spaniards and natives to his cause against Pizarro and defeated him in early April at the Battle of Xaquixaguana (Jaquijahuana). Losses were forty-five for Pizarro's forces, excluding Pizarro himself (who was promptly executed), and only one man on Gasca's side.
1548*Diet of Augsburg\n Augsburg: Yet another Catholic diet has been called, this one by Charles V, to settle the religious differences in the Holy Roman Empire. Although Protestants expected little from this diet, attendees were shocked to see Schmalkaldic League ringleaders John Frederick, elector of Saxony, and Philip, landgrave of Hesse, defeated last year at Muhlberg, paraded through the meeting. Clearly, the Protestant Reformation was not stamped out at the Battle of Muhlberg, and Charles still has much to do to reconcile the Christian religious schism in Germany.
1548*Around the World\n Europe: Holy Roman Emperor Charles V annexes the Netherlands.\n In Paris, a royal edict forbids performance of "mysteres" plays in Paris. Interestingly, the Hotel de Borgogne opened as Paris' first roofed theater.\n Spanish set up vast silver mines in Zaatecar, Mexico.\n Francis Xavier founds a Jesuit mission in Japan. Will Christianity be tolerated by the Japanese Shogunate?\n Turks conquer Tabriz in northern Persia, expanding their empire eastward.\n Ignatius Loyola's "Spiritual Exercises," written 27 years ago, is finally published.
~~1549
1549*Protestants Vs. Copernicus?\n Munich: Philipp Melanchthon, the German scholar who is seen as the new Protestant leader after the death of Martin Luther three years ago, has denounced the heliocentric theories of Copernicus published six years ago. "On this I stand with Roman Catholics," remarked Melanchthon. "God put the Earth at the center of the universe." The pope has been urged to add Copernicus' controversial "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres" to the church's Index of Forbidden Books.
1549*Common Prayer in England\n London: The young king of England, Edward VI, has authorized "The Book of Common Prayer." Introducing uniform Protestant service throughout England, a May 20th edict has declared that this is the only book of prayer allowed for use in the Church of England, founded when Edward's father, King Henry VIII, split with the Roman Catholic Church over the divorce of his first wife, Catherine of Aragon.
1549*One for the Yearbook\n Europe: Czar Ivan IV has his new government underway on a conciliatory note by calling the first national assembly in Russia.\n Pope Paul III died late this year. A meeting of Cardinals has been summoned for early next year to elect a new pope.\n In Zurich, Calvin and the Zwinglians reach an agreement on Holy Communion -- the "Consensus Tigurinus."\n Jesuit missionaries land in South America.\n Court jesters (dwarfs, cripples, freaks, etc.) gain popularity throughout Europe.
~~1550
1550*New Pope Named!\n Vatican City: Cardinal Giovanni Maria del Monte has been named Pope Julius III. After several days of waiting, thousands of Catholics in St. Peter's Square burst into loud cheers of "Viva il Papa" ("Long live the pope") as the thin, white stream of the fumata (smoke signal) rose into the sky, signaling the acceptance of a new pontiff. Cardinal Maria del Monte, 63 years old, replaces Pope Paul III and is the 220th pope in the history of the Roman Catholic Church.
1550*England Names New Secretary of State\n London: Edward VI has named William Cecil as England's new secretary of state. In his new role, Cecil, 30 years old, will guide England's foreign and domestic policy. One member of Parliament, who wished to remain anonymous, was quoted as saying, "It will take a special man to continue this great country's legacy around the world. I hope Cecil is up to the task..."
1550*Cranmer Defends Catholic Doctrine, Seeks Reform\n England: Thomas Cranmer has released his latest work, "A Defense of the Catholic Doctrine of the Sacrament." Since his appointment in 1533 as the archbishop of Canterbury, Cranmer has supported King Henry VIII's efforts to lessen the power of the pope and to allow the king to become "justly and rightly...the supreme head of the Church of England." This latest work appears to be part of Cranmer's continuing efforts to reform the English church.
1550*Baroque Gains Favor\n Rome: A new artistic movement is getting the attention the culturally daring. Called "baroque," this artistic style is large in scale and filled with dramatic details. The roots of this early baroque style appear to be in restless artists' rebellion against the restrained, orderly work of the Renaissance. Baroque artists are replacing the symmetry of Renaissance work and achieving balance with the much more daring use of rectangles and curved areas. Baroque art also appears to be gaining the favor of European rulers who want an art style that will glorify their reign. Some experts predict that this restless, high-spirited movement will be the next major phase of artistic innovation.
~~1551
1551*More's "Utopia" Translated\n London: Saint Thomas More's (1477?-1535) classic work, "Utopia," has been translated from the original Latin into English by Ralph Robinson. Utopia is an account of an ideal society, with equality and justice for all of its citizens. It is from this work that the word "utopia" has come to be recognized in many European languages. More, the author of many works in both English and Latin, was imprisoned in April 1534 for refusing to swear to the Act of Succession, which named Henry VIII as head of the Church of England. He was beheaded on July 6, 1535. Despite Saint More's tragic demise, we now may enjoy his most famous work in our native English.
1551*Titian Creates New Masterpiece\n Venice: The greatest Venetian painter of the Italian Renaissance has completed his latest work. Tiziano Vecelli (commonly known as Titian) unveiled his portrait entitled "Philip II," the latest in a long line of portraits depicting many of Europe's most famous figures. Philip II of Spain is heir to his father's throne and one of the most influential men in Europe. Despite Titian's many portraits, he is perhaps best remembered and respected for his ability to capture and idealize the beauty of nature in his paintings. Although Titian is 74 years old, he appears to be in excellent health and continues to create some of the finest paintings in Europe.
1551*England and Wales License Alehouses!\n England: In a divisive move, leaders of England and Wales have approved the licensing of alehouses and taverns for the first time. Among the working class, the decision is quite popular. "We've been doing this for years, now we just don't have to sneak around anymore...or grease any more palms," commented one taverner who declined to reveal his identity. "We work hard. We deserve to have a place to go and relax and socialize," says a local taverngoer. Not everyone is so supportive. One lord is quoted as stating, "This is just another step in the decline of this noble country. Going to alehouses and getting drunk isn't what made us great." Although the debate will surely continue, it appears that taverns are here to stay.
1551*Another Austro-Turkish War\n The five-year Peace of Adrianople did not see its fourth anniversary before being broken by Austria's Archduke Ferdinand who was unhappy that the Turkish pashalik (pasha's province) of Buda separated Austrian Hungary from Transylvania. Immediate moves were made by both sides around the Transylvanian capital of Lippa. Presently, three Hungaries exist -- an Austrian, an Ottoman (Buda), and a Transylvanian. Both Austria and the Turks are seeking Hungarian hegemony by way of a Transylvanian court rife with intrigue.
~~1552
1552*Russia Aims At Kazan and Astrakhan\n Russia: Ivan IV, sometimes known as Ivan the Terrible, is continuing Russia's expansion with movement into Kazan and Astrakhan. Ivan IV, the first czar of Russia, is often recognized as crafty and cruel. Still, his position as a powerful leader is well recognized and the people of his country, most of whom have been officially relegated to "servants of the czar," possess a deep respect for his authority. Ivan IV's policies of ruling his people with a deadly secret police force and inviting experts from other countries to teach craftsmanship and military techniques have led many to speculate that Russia will become the next major power of eastern Europe.
1552*Ronsard Releases "Amours" Vol. 1\n Vendome: Pierre de Ronsard, the "Prince of Poets," has released his latest work, "Amours." The French poet, born in 1524, is well known for his love poetry and discourses dealing with moral and philosophical issues. Additionally, Ronsard leads an influential group of French poets called the Pleiade. Pierre de Ronsard was born in the family manor house near Vendome, France and, despite being trained as a diplomat, turned to literature and poetry when he became partially deaf. His previous releases, "Odes" (1550-1552), were inspired by Greek and Latin poetry and were well received by the critical community.
1552*Eustachio Releases "Tabulae Anatomicae"\n Italy: Bartolommeo Eustachio has released an anatomical guide which claims to have uncovered some of the mysteries of the workings of the human ear. According to Eustachio's guide, the inner ear contains an area that the author has dubbed the "Eustachian tube." This canal is about 1.5 inches long, composed of bone and cartilage, and lined with a mucous membrane. Eustachio also contends that this passage is connected to the throat, allowing air to pass from the throat to the middle ear. Experts, naturally, are dubious, claiming that it is more likely that the ear leads directly to the brain.
~~1553
1553*Servetus Executed for Heresy\n Paris: Spanish physician and theologian Michael Servetus has been executed for heresy. The author of "Christianismi Restitutio" had been condemned by civil and Catholic church authorities for not conforming to accepted doctrines in his religious writings. In addition to his theological work, Servetus' detailings of the pulmonary circulation system are considered the most advanced in medicine. Recent events had escalated the controversy over Servetus' assertions in his religious writings -- so much so that even Protestant John Calvin accused him of being a heretic. Servetus was burned at the stake.
1553*Edward VI, King of England, Dies\n London: King Edward VI, of the house of Tudor, has died at the age of sixteen. Edward, son of Henry VIII by his third wife, Jane Seymour, inherited the throne from his father in 1547. When he became the king of England and Ireland, Edward was just 10 years old and, as such, most of the affairs of the kingdom were controlled by his uncle, Edward Seymour, duke of Somerset. During the sickly king's short reign, Protestantism was established as the state religion, the first Book of Common Prayer was released by Archbishop Cranmer, and the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion were published. Mary I, daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, ascended the throne over Lady Grey's incarcerated body.
1553*French Author Rabelais Dies\n Touraine: The famous French humorist Francois Rabelais has died at the age of fifty-nine. Rabelais is probably best known for his work "Gargantua and Pantagruel," in which Gargantua and his son are giants with enormous appetites. Through their adventures, the author ridiculed the political, judicial, educational, and religious institutions of his society. Born near Chinon in the province of Touraine, Rabelais became a Franciscan monk in 1520 and earned his bachelor of medicine degree in 1530 from the University of Montpellier. He practiced and lectured on medicine from 1532 to 1546. Although Rabelais is famous for his humor, he is also renowned for dealing honestly with many serious topics.
~~1554
1554*Palestrina Dedicates "Book of Masses"\n Rome: Giovanni Palestrina, the famous Italian church music composer, has dedicated the first "Book of Masses" to Pope Julius III. Palestrina is best known as a master of polyphonic (many-voiced) music for choruses unaccompanied by instruments.\n Should there be a church music reformation? Some wish to keep only the chants of the mass as part of church ritual. Others hope to keep, and even build upon, the polyphonic style. While it is hoped that Palestrina's work will help convince detractors that such music is appropriate, this debate is unlikely to be resolved in the near future.
1554*Lady Jane Grey, Queen of England, Executed\n London: Nine days after being proclaimed the new queen of England, Lady Jane Grey and her husband, Lord Guildford Dudley, have been beheaded. Lady Jane Grey, great-granddaughter of England's Henry VII, succeeded King Edward VI. Edward had feared that, should his Roman Catholic sister, Mary, become queen, England would no longer be a Protestant nation. Recognizing the situation, Lord Dudley had convinced the king to give his wife the right to succeed him on the throne. Once Lady Grey's claims to the throne were recognized, she was imprisoned in the Tower of London and arraigned on a charge of high treason. She and her husband went under the guillotine on February 12.
1554*Queen Mary I Marries Philip of Spain\n London: Queen Mary I, daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, has married Philip II of Spain. Mary, who became queen of England in 1553 upon the death of her brother, Edward VI, is a devout Roman Catholic who is attempting to bring England back to the Roman Catholic Church. She has quickly gained a reputation as a merciless advocate of the Church, having already sent many Protestants to be burned at the stake for heresy. Her marriage to Philip II of Spain is unpopular, as many Englishmen believe Spain to be their greatest enemy. It is feared by some political leaders that Philip will persuade Mary to join Spain in a war against France, a move which would be, by most accounts, disastrous for England.
~~1555
1555*Charles V Abdicates\n Rome: Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and ruler of Spain, has turned over the government of the Netherlands, rulerships of Spain, parts of Italy, and the Americas to his son, Philip II. Charles ruled over more countries than any other European monarch, either presently or before him. The grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and also of Emperor Maximilian I and Mary of Burgundy, Charles hails from the most distinguished of backgrounds. At 55 years of age, however, it is believed that Charles is planning to retire to a Spanish monastery. Born in Ghent, Belgium in 1500, he inherited the Netherlands and Burgundian lands in 1506, became ruler of Spain in 1516 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1519.
1555*Peace of Augsburg!\n Augsburg: Emperor Charles V has bowed to political pressure and signed the Peace of Augsburg. After years of war and dissent, all secular German princes and independent cities will now have the right to choose between Lutheranism and Catholicism. Subjects are required to abide by their ruler's choice, with dissenters permitted to migrate to other territories. A victory for the reformation movement in Germany, there are now two orthodoxies within Germany in place of one. It is feared by many observers that this will give rise to tensions between followers of the respective faiths. For now, however, there is celebration among those who have the newly gained right to worship as they please.
1555*Humayun Regains Rulership of India\n India: The former ruler has regained his kingdom in India by defeating the Afghans in a closely contested battle in Sirhind. After losing his kingdom in 1539 to Sher Khan, Humayun fled into the deserts of Sind for several years, reemerging in 1545 with borrowed troops from Shah Tahmasp of Persia. During eight years of relentless campaigns, Humayun reestablished himself as the undisputed leader of the Moguls. Although greatly outnumbered in Sirhind, Humayun was able to lead his troops to victory and pave the way back to his previously held leadership. From Sirhind, Humayun moved on to Delhi and ascended to the throne in July.
~~1556
1556*Ivan Completes Capture of Volga\n Astrakhan: Ivan the Terrible and his Russian army have completed their capture of the length of the Volga River and opened up a trade route to the Caspian Sea. In a siege that began four years ago, the Russian army took the city in a long, bloody battle. After two unsuccessful tries, Ivan's troops stormed the main gates of the city and fought the demoralized Tatars hand-to-hand in the streets. In uncharacteristic fashion, Ivan spared the life of the Tatar khan upon surrender, stating to the fallen leader, "Unhappy man, you did not know the power of Russia." Now, some four years after Ivan's greatest military triumph, Russia has annexed the khanate of Astrakhan to the southeast in a battle far less bloody than that in Kazan, thus opening the route to the Caspian Sea.
1556*Humayun Dies, Succeeded by Son Akbar\n India: Just six months after completing the epic battle to regain the throne of India, Humayun has died. On January 23, as he climbed onto the roof of his library to observe the rising of Venus, Humayun slipped and fell down the steep stone stairs. He died of his injuries a few days later.\n Humayun has been replaced by his thirteen-year-old son, Akbar. The young ruler will have to prove his worthiness immediately as the city of Delhi has been captured by Himu, a Hindu, and many of Akbar's supporters are recommending a retreat to Kabul. It appears that Himu has assembled an army of 100 thousand men and 1,500 elephants while Akbar's forces total only about 20 thousand men. Reports suggest that, despite these odds, Akbar appears to be ready to go to battle.
1556*Ignatius Loyola Dies\n Barcelona: Ignatius Loyola, founder of the Society of Jesus, the Jesuits, has died after a short illness. While recovering from wounds earned while fighting in the army of the duke of Najera during a war with France, Loyola read "The Life of Christ" and "Flowers of the Saints." These works changed his life and led him to serve the church. He and six other young men formed the Society of Jesus in Paris in 1534. Six years later Pope Paul III gave the society his approval, and Loyola was elected its first general. Through Loyola's leadership, the Jesuits have grown into a solid, respected organization, and it is expected that the Jesuits will continue to thrive despite his passing.
~~1557
1557*Influenza Spreads Throughout Europe!\n Europe: Influenza, long smoldering in different regions, has now spread across all of Europe. Influenza, also known as "flu" or "grippe," can be highly contagious and affects its victims with headaches, chills, fever, and aches in the joints. Partly due to complications such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and other infections, millions of people have died, and there appears to be no end in sight. Some alarmists are speculating that the entire population of Europe will be decimated, and that influenza may be a great pandemic that will wipe out virtually the entire human race. More positive sorts still hope for a natural end to this epidemic.
1557*Censorship Causes Controversy\n London: For the first time in London, the lord mayor and the council have censored a play. "The Sack-Full of Newes" has been censored because it contains material that is of "a sensitive nature politically," according to a council spokesman. Theatergoers are concerned, claiming that it is not the government's job to decide what is and is not suitable for public consumption. While government censorship is certainly not a new concept, this is the first time that English officials have openly acknowledged that they will be monitoring and filtering the information received by the general public. It has also been suggested by anonymous council members that this is not the last of censorship in England.
1557*King of Portugal Dies\n Portugal: John III, who became king of Portugal in 1521, has died. Sadly, John's years in power have marked a decline in Portugal's influence. Among other things, during his reign, many Jews were forced to leave the country. Unfortunately, all of their banking and commercial power went with them. Replacing John III will be his grandson, Sebastian, but many fear that the decline of this nation is imminent regardless of Sebastian's leadership abilities. Rumors continue to circulate that King Philip II of Spain will soon seize the throne of Portugal and integrate this coastal nation into the existing Spanish structure.
~~1558
1558*Elizabeth I Named Queen of England\n London: Upon the death of Mary I, Elizabeth I has been named queen of England. Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, was declared illegitimate at the age of three when her mother was beheaded after losing favor with the king. She later resumed her place in the succession to the throne. Elizabeth will inherit many problems from her deceased half-sister Mary, including a war with France, a bankrupt treasury, and the question of what England's religion should be. While Mary was a staunch Roman Catholic, it is believed that Elizabeth will attempt to minimize the influence of the Roman Catholic Church and perhaps reinstate the Anglican Church (Church of England). Additionally, parliamentarians are concerned about Elizabeth's single status which would, upon her death, give the throne to her nearest relative Mary Stuart, queen of Scots.
1558*Mary, Queen of Scots, Marries Francis II\n London: Mary, queen of Scots, 16 years old, has wed the fourteen-year-old French dauphin, Francis II. As the only child of James V of Scotland and Mary of Guise, Mary has been the queen of Scotland since her father's death when she was just a week old. At the age of six, she was sent to France to be educated. Francis, the grandson of Francis I, is next in line to become the king of France. Given the young ages of these newlyweds, it is hoped that the two royals will enjoy a long, happy life together.
1558*Gresham Suggests Reform of English Currency\n London: Thomas Gresham, founder of the Royal Exchange in London, has proposed a reform of English currency based on "Gresham's Law." This principle states that "bad money tends to drive good money out of circulation." For the past several hundred years, dishonest dealers have shaved the edges off of gold coins. Those unlucky enough to receive one of these lightweight coins would naturally pass it on as soon as possible while saving coins of full weight. Gresham has suggested a reformation to end such value discrepancies.
~~1559
1559*King Henry II of France Killed\n France: The king of France, Henry II, has met a tragic, untimely demise at the age of 39, being killed in an accident during a tournament. Henry succeeded his father, Francis I, in 1547. The late king persecuted Huguenots and took away their lands. Although contesting Spain's dominance over Italy throughout his reign, Henry was unable to defeat the Spaniards, finally signing the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis earlier this year which formally recognizes Spanish control in Italy. During his reign, Henry battled both England and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, managing to take Calais, England's last possession in France, and the cities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun from the Holy Roman Empire. Henry is succeeded by his son, Francis II, the husband of Mary, queen of Scots.
1559*Pope Paul IV Dies\n Vatican City: Pope Paul IV, born near Benevento, Italy, has died at the grand age of 83. During his papacy, beginning in 1555, Paul cofounded the Theatine order and adamantly pursued reformation of other religious orders. He refused to reconvene the council of Trent because he believed he could implement reforms himself. Against the protests of many who witnessed the pain and tragedies of previous crusades, Paul reorganized the inquisition and established censorship of books. His more humanitarian efforts included aid for the poor and a stricter administration of justice. Giovanni Angelo Medici has been chosen to succeed Paul as Pope Pius IV.
1559*John Knox Returns From Exile\n Scotland: John Knox, leader of the Protestant Reformation in Scotland, has returned from his exile in Geneva. In 1549, Knox became a chaplain to King Edward VI, taking a leading role in the English Reformation until Edward's death in 1553. The coronation of Queen Mary, a Catholic, forced Knox into exile, during which he served as pastor of the English church at Geneva, Switzerland. Mary's death last year has allowed Knox to return to Scotland where he is rekindling his reformation efforts. There is even speculation that the Scottish parliament may adopt Protestantism as the new state religion. Should this occur, it will mark a major victory for John Knox.
~~1560
1560*Puritanism Arises in England\n London: A movement known as "puritanism," which includes, to varying degrees, the multitude of England's Protestant factions, is gaining acceptance. The Puritan ideal is one of simplified worship without elements that may obscure the true meaning of the church. Within Puritanism is a wide diversity of such ideals, however. Fundamentalists suggest the removal of statues and colored windows from churches and music from Christian ceremonies. Less-stringent Puritans support the elimination of priestly vestments and elaborate ceremonies. Of general agreement is that all clergymen should be of equal rank. Puritans claim that their views of church organization and government come from the Bible itself. While the Puritan movement is gaining favor in England, it is unclear whether or not it will be of major consequence.
1560*Melanchthon, German Humanist, Dies\n Baden: The German religious leader Philipp Melanchthon has died at the age of 63. Melanchthon worked with Martin Luther in the Protestant Reformation. His fluency in Greek and Latin helped him establish the foundations of the Protestant movement in Germany and enabled him to help Luther translate the Bible into German.\n In 1530, Melanchthon and Luther penned the statement of Protestant beliefs, the Augsburg Confession. During the heated religious disputes of the Reformation, Melanchthon was a calming force, being more willing than Luther to compromise with Roman Catholics to reach religious unity.
1560*Du Bellay, French Author and Poet, Dies\n Paris: Noted French author and poet Joachim du Bellay has died at the age of thirty-eight. Along with his friend, Pierre de Ronsard, du Bellay founded a group of poets called the Pleiade. It was du Bellay's work "Defense and Glorification of the French Language," written in 1549, which established the literary doctrines of the group.\n Du Bellay wrote two exceptional volumes of verse, "Antiquities of Rome" and "Regrets." "Antiques" is a treatise on the virtues of Ancient Rome, while "Regrets" deals with the more introspective theme of du Bellay's self-imposed exile from France.
~~1561
1561*New Flower Introduced in Vienna\n Vienna: A beautiful new flower called a "tulip," from the Turkish word for turban, has been unveiled in Vienna. Brought from Constantinople, tulips are bulbs that bloom in the spring.\n The introduction of a new plant species is always of interest to western Europeans, but the tulip seems to be creating an uncommon level of excitement. The flower has quickly become outrageously fashionable and is even becoming something of a commodity for those with the means to obtain the plant.
1561*Calvinist Refugees in England\n England: Refugees seeking to escape religious persecution in Flanders are arriving in England in the hopes of finding a more accepting environment. Calvinism, named after its founder, John Calvin, is part of the Protestant Reformation movement started by those dissatisfied with the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church. The Christian Creed developed from Calvin's teachings states that God is sovereign in his creation and knows all things, including man's destiny. It asserts that man was made in God's image, fell from grace, and can only be saved through serving Christ. The influx of refugees from Flanders is just beginning, and British authorities are keeping a close eye on the situation.
1561*Basilica and Cathedral of St. Basil Completed\n Moscow: After years of delays and alterations, the Basilica of St. Basil and St. Basil's Cathedral have been completed in Moscow. The cathedral, highlighted by colorful domes and cupolas, dominates the Moscow skyline.\n St. Basil's Cathedral has been built as a monument to Ivan the Terrible's victory at Kazan in 1552. The structure is designed as eight separate chapels of alternating heights clustered around a central altar. It stands just outside the walls of the Kremlin. There is a disturbing rumor that Ivan the Terrible has had the architects of the cathedral blinded so that they may never again build anything so beautiful.
~~1562
1562*Tintoretto Completes Latest Work\n Venice: The great Venetian painter Tintoretto has completed his latest masterpiece, "Christ at the Sea of Galilee." Born Jacopo Robusti, this painter is called "il Tintoretto" (little dyer) because of his father's occupation as a dyer. The figures in Tintoretto's paintings often appear to move wildly in a deep space and changing light. It is this depth and activity that has so popularized the artist's work among aficionados. With his latest work, Tintoretto, 44 years old, continues to develop his style and brilliant imagination.
1562*French Attempt to Colonize Florida\n New World: The French are attempting to colonize a southern portion of the New World known as "Florida." A group of Huguenots is establishing a colony on the St. Johns River. This action is not expected to go uncontested, as word will soon reach King Philip II of Spain that there is a French colony on Spanish-owned land. Spanish explorer Ponce de Leon claimed the region in 1513, calling it "Florida," Spanish for "full of flowers," because of the many flowers he saw there. It is assumed that, upon learning of the French activities, King Philip will act quickly and send troops to oust the French colonists.
1562*Hawkins Makes First Journey to New World\n London: John Hawkins, the famous sea captain, has made his first voyage to the New World. The captain, well renowned as a ruthless slave trader, is expected to begin the establishment of slave trading operations in the New World. Likely sources for this slave trade are Guinea and the West Indies. The move towards establishing such operations in the New World signals England's confidence that the slow trickle of emigrants across the Atlantic will continue and grow.
~~1563
1563*Brueghel Completes "The Tower of Babel"\n Brabant, Belgium: The greatest Flemish artist of our time, Pieter Brueghel, has completed his latest masterpiece, "The Tower of Babel." Brueghel, who is 38 years old and recognized as the best landscape painter in Europe, continues his role as a moralist who sees man's folly in many guises. "The Tower of Babel" features Brueghel's style of distributing many small figures over a large landscape. Brueghel is recognized for his ability to depict the rugged life of peasants and the immutable forces of nature with tremendous vigor and truth. It is most probably these abilities that have made him so popular among both the common people and the more discriminating elite.
1563*William Byrd Named Organist At Lincoln Cathedral\n London: The twenty-year-old English composer William Byrd has been named organist at the Lincoln Cathedral. Byrd, a pupil of Thomas Tallis, has demonstrated great versatility as a musician, composing English church music for Latin and English rites, as well as composing both light and serious madrigals. In his position as organist at Lincoln Cathedral, Byrd will be able to continue his more beloved craft of composition while still demonstrating his talents on the organ. It is, after all, his organ playing for which Byrd is best known.
1563*Mystic Style Blossoms in Spain\n Salamanca: A new style of literature has started in Spain. This new movement, known as "Spanish Mystic," is composed by artists who seek union with God through constant meditation. One of the first poets to gain acclaim using this style is St. John of the Cross. Teresa de Jesus has contributed several prose works, including her autobiography. Two other important authors in this style are Fray Luis de Granada and Fray Luis de Leon, who is a professor at the University of Salamanca. De Leon has been persecuted during the Inquisition, but uses his work as a catharsis and a method through which to come closer to God.
~~1564
1564*Lord Dudley Made Earl of Leicester\n London: Robert Dudley, the fifth son of the Duke of Northumberland, has been named earl of Leicester. Born at Cornbury, Oxfordshire, Robert is a favorite of Queen Elizabeth, and there has been some controversy regarding their relationship. When Robert's wife died, it was speculated that he himself had killed her in order to marry the queen. This was never proved, however. Many of Elizabeth's advisers oppose any union between her and the earl. Despite Parliament's concern over Elizabeth's single status, which leaves Mary, queen of Scots, a Roman Catholic, next in line for the throne, it does not appear that Queen Elizabeth and the earl of Leicester will ever join in any official way.
1564*Ivan the Terrible Withdraws From Moscow\n Moscow: Recently, Russia has been repeatedly attacked by Crimea and Lithuania. While worrisome and aggravating, few have viewed these attacks as threatening to Ivan's rule. Despite this, Ivan and his family, along with his closest advisers, have left Moscow for a secret destination. After departing, Ivan dispatched a letter to be read to the people of Moscow. The letter reads, "God's wrath has descended upon me. I am more vile and stinking in God's eyes for my loathsome deeds than a corpse." The letter goes on to explain that Ivan is abdicating because he can no longer rule the ambitious, rebellious boyars. While the public reaction to this announcement is shock and sadness, many doubt that a leader of Ivan's character would so easily abandon his domain. Most Muscovites fear the possibility of boyar rule and are demanding the return of Ivan.
1564*Michelangelo Dies!\n Rome: One of the great leaders of the Italian Renaissance has died. Michelangelo Buonarroti, known to the world simply as Michelangelo, passed away in Rome at the age of eighty-nine. Although he began his artistic career as apprentice to Domenico Ghirlandajo, the most popular painter in Florence at the time, the work of sculptor Donatello influenced Michelangelo so profoundly that he ended his apprenticeship and began working as a sculptor. Michelangelo created such masterpieces as the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, the tomb of Julius II, the Medici Chapel, the Florentine Pieta, and The Heroic Captive. During his later years, Michelangelo focused his efforts on architecture and poetry, acting as lead architect on the unfinished dome of St. Peter's Church, believed to be the largest dome in the world.
~~1565
1565*Human Dissection Legalized\n London: The Royal College of Physicians in London has been empowered to carry out human dissections. Although recognized as an essential tool for the study of medicine, human dissection has long been viewed as a ghoulish, even sacrilegious, practice. In the early part of the century, famous Italian Leonardo da Vinci began dissecting and diagramming the human body. He was forced to do so in private due to the public's fear of this practice. Recently, however, physicians are finding that da Vinci's and other scientists' dissection work is indispensable in treatment of the human body and the understanding of its workings. Administrators at the Royal College of Physicians believe that dissection and documentation of the human body's structure will become the foundation of future medical theory.
1565*Pencils Arrive in England!\n London: All London is abuzz about the manufacture of a new writing instrument. The new tool, called a pencil, uses lead instead of ink and has a major advantage over ink -- it can be erased. Connected to the back end of the pencil is a small piece of rubber called an eraser that can be rubbed over errors to erase them. Not everyone is happy about this new invention, however. Lead has a nasty tendency to smear and, unlike ink, does not set after a period of time. Others worry about the security of pencil-created documents, noting that changes might be made at any time against the authors' wishes. Brisk sales of pencils, however, suggest that they are here to stay.
1565*Captain Hawkins Brings Gift From the New World!\n London: Captain John Hawkins, one of England's most fearless adventurers, has returned from his latest voyage to the New World bearing an amazing gift, a plant known as the "sweet potato." As the name suggests, the sweet potato's texture and shape are similar to a potato, but it has a pleasant, sweet taste. It is believed that the sweet potato has high energy value and, therefore, may become a dietary staple. It is expected that Captain Hawkins' latest contribution will become a popular item in England.
~~1566
1566*Rizzio Murdered!\n Edinburgh: David Rizzio, confidential secretary of Mary, queen of Scots, has been murdered in Edinburgh. Rizzio, an Italian musician, had been commonly recognized as one of Mary's favorites, and there had been speculation among the Scottish elite as to the exact nature of the relationship between the queen and her private secretary. This speculation turned to violence when a band of men led by two Scottish earls raided Mary's private supper room, dragged Rizzio from the table, and stabbed him to death. Mary's cousin and husband, Lord Darnley, is widely believed to have been a leader in this murder, but no official action has been taken. Despite Lord Darnley's alleged involvement, Mary has fled Edinburgh with her husband and apparently taken refuge in Dunbar. It is reported that Mary is seven months pregnant with Darnley's child.
1566*Suleiman I Dies\n Ottoman Empire: The man who is known to the world as "The Magnificent," and to his own people as "The Lawgiver," has died at the age of seventy-two. As the tenth ruler of the Ottoman Empire, Suleiman led an amazing number of campaigns during his rule. He led armies into Hungary, stormed the walls of Vienna, invaded Persia, and captured Tabriz and Baghdad. His fleets dominated the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf, held North Africa, and raided the coasts of Spain, France, and Italy. Suleiman I took Rhodes from the Knights of Saint John, revised the Ottoman Empire's legal system, and quarreled with several of his sons, actually executing two of them. Suleiman I will undoubtedly be remembered as one of the greatest leaders of all time. He is succeeded by Selim II.
1566*Nostradamus Dies!\n Montpellier: The great French astrologer and physician, Michel de Notredame, more commonly known as Nostradamus, has died at the age of sixty-three. Nostradamus was born in Saint-Remi in 1503 and earned a doctor's degree in 1532, becoming a professor at the University of Montpellier. Despite his fine work in medicine, Nostradamus is best remembered for his work "Centuries" (1555), a series of prophecies in verse. Although his prophecies are often vague, Nostradamus won fame in 1559 when King Henry II died in a manner described in "Centuries." This notoriety gained him an appointment as court physician to King Charles IX of France. Only time will tell if Nostradamus' other predictions will prove true.
~~1567
1567*Typhoid Fever Kills Two Million!\n South America: Typhoid fever has decimated over two million Indians in South America. Typically unsanitary conditions through much of South America have contributed to this epidemic along with the native peoples' inability to fend off this foreign disease.\n Typical symptoms of typhoid include fever, headache, and pain in the back, arms, and legs. Nausea then develops, along with a loss of appetite and possibly the development of red spots on the body, usually the abdomen. Later, massive hemorrhaging can result in death. These symptoms have become all too common among South American Indians, and victims will generally remove themselves from the populace when the first signs arise.
1567*Mendana de Neyra Discovers Solomon Islands\n Pacific Ocean: Spanish explorer Alvaro Mendana de Neyra has discovered a new chain of islands in the Pacific Ocean dubbed the Solomon Islands. Mendana de Neyra has named them such in the belief that these islands are the source of the gold used in Solomon's Temple at Jerusalem.\n The islands, which lie east of New Guinea in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, have a hot, damp climate. They are largely mountainous, heavily wooded, and well watered. Much of the soil is very fertile due to its formation from lava. The Solomon Islands have many active volcanoes, and the fertile soil allows the natives to grow bananas, coconuts, pineapples, and rubber trees. Despite Mendana de Neyra's important discovery, no future expeditions to these islands are planned.
1567*Duke of Alba Named Military Governor in Netherlands\n Amsterdam: King Philip II of Spain has named Fernando de Toledo, duke of Alba, the military governor of the Netherlands after the country's revolt against Spain. The duke, a Spanish general known for his cruelty and tyranny, has already sentenced thousands to death, and his rulership has been given the name "Council of Blood." Many doubt that his tactics will be effective in pacifying the people of the Netherlands and bringing them to grips with Spanish rule. Natives have already begun to rebel as patriots have seized several coastal towns and attacked Spanish shipping. Many dikes have been cut in an effort to stop Alba's army as well. Regardless of the final outcome, it is clear that Spain will not take the Netherlands without a fight.
~~1568
1568*Bottled Beer Invented!\n London: Alexander Nowell, dean of St. Paul's, has invented a method for bottling beer. This discovery promises to revolutionize the world of beer consumption, since bottled beer can be stored almost indefinitely. Expected to benefit from this discovery are tavern operators, who will no longer have to carefully monitor production and consumption hoping to avoid wasted beer; and brewers, who will be able to ship their product anywhere. Not everyone is overjoyed with this development, however. It seems that clergymen and wives alike believe that the previous limitation on beer distribution, because of its perishable nature, may have been the only thing holding society together.
1568*John Hawkins' Fleet Attacked!\n Mexico: Captain John Hawkins has run into trouble on his third transatlantic voyage. While heading home after dispatching a cargo of slaves, one of the largest ships in Hawkins' fleet was battered almost beyond repair by sudden gales. The fleet managed to reach the nearest harbor, the Mexican port of San Juan de Ulua. While Hawkins' fleet was making repairs, a Spanish flotilla arrived bringing Philip II's new viceroy of Mexico. The Spanish immediately attacked, killing many English sailors. The 400 survivors managed to sail out of firing range, but were unable to take on any food or water. It is unknown how these sailors will make their way back to England. There has been no further word from Captain Hawkins, and all of England anxiously awaits his return.
1568*Mercator Develops Cylindrical Projection for Charts\n Flanders: Flemish geographer Gerardus Mercator has developed a new method of chart making. Called "cylindrical projection," this method represents lines of longitude and latitude as straight lines drawn at right angles to each other. Although this style of "Mercator Map" magnifies areas near the poles and does not show areas in their true proportions, many navigators favor this projection because a straight line drawn anywhere on the map shows a constant compass direction, and the shapes of very small areas are nearly perfect. Mercator's work is commonly recognized as the most progressive cartography in Europe, and many are anxiously awaiting his "world map" which is apparently nearing completion.
~~1569
1569*Brahe Begins Construction of Huge Celestial Globe\n Augsburg: The famous Danish astronomer, Tycho Brahe, has begun construction on what will be the world's largest celestial globe. To be constructed in Augsburg, the globe will be a monument to Brahe's excellence in astronomy. Brahe is probably best known for his correction of the planetary tables. Previous to his night-after-night observations of the planets, astronomers only observed planets at critical points in their orbits, resulting in charts that placed planets very much differently than they appeared in the sky.
1569*Hawkins Returns to England -- Alive!\n London: The Royal Navy's most famous captain, John Hawkins, has made a bittersweet return to his homeland. Last year, while making badly needed repairs to his fleet in the port of San Juan de Ulua in Mexico, Hawkins' ships were attacked by a Spanish armada. Fleeing with 400 men and before replenishing food and water supplies, there was little hope of the fleet's safe return. Only seventy men made it back to England. This brutal voyage marks the low point of Hawkins' career, yet it has proven to the English people that he is a leader cut from the noblest of cloth. The attack on its finest captain has not gone unnoticed by British leaders. Although a Spanish-English war does not appear imminent, tensions between the two nations have increased.
1569*Headlines!\n Europe: An outbreak of carbuncular fever has killed 40 thousand inhabitants of Lisbon!\n Gerardus Mercator has finally put his projections to use. His new world map is out; bearing the unique Mercator projections, it promises to be of considerable value to explorers and traders on their journeys to distant lands.\n A plot against the Tudor monarchy, in particular against Elizabeth I's secretary William Cecil, was revealed by the imprisoned duke of Norfolk. A subsequent rebellion by coconspirators, the earls of Northumberland and Westmorland, was quelled; the earl of Northumberland was executed; and the earl of Westmorland was exiled to Flanders.
~~1570
1570*News Flashes From Around the World!\n Sweden: The Peace of Stettin finally ends the Scandinavian Seven Years' War, which was precipitated by Denmark's Frederick II adopting Sweden's coat of arms on his shield, his capricious arrest of Swedish ambassadors, and his interception of the Swedish king's love letters to Queen Elizabeth I of England!\n France: Peace of St. Germain-en-Laye ends the Third War of Religion in France, extending many religious freedoms to Protestants.\n England: Nicholas Hilliard completes the latest portrait of Queen Elizabeth I.\n Antwerp: The cartographer Abraham Ortelius has just published "Theatrum orbis terrarum," the first great atlas, featuring fifty-three maps.
1570*Ivan the Terrible Sacks Novgorod\n Moscow: Ivan IV arrived in Novgorod on January 2 to observe his decreed destruction of this city. His decision to obliterate Novgorod stems from a letter written by the archbishop of that city requesting an alliance with Lithuania, a joint kingdom with Poland. Although rumors suggest that the letter is a forgery, written by a desperate convicted criminal hoping to commute his sentence, Ivan IV, as is his wont, decided to take the sternest measures against Novgorod. He had nearly 60 thousand citizens executed, while the city's churches and monasteries were burned. He has returned home with the archbishop's and Novgorodian leaders' bodies, placing them in grisly public display.
1570*Turks Invade Cyprus!\n Nicosia, Cyprus: Irritated by Venetian refusal to cede Cyprus to the Ottoman Empire, Sultan Selim II ordered the invasion of Venetian Cyprus with an army of 50 thousand Turks. The Turks besieged the city this summer. With only five thousand brave soldiers to fend off the Turks, the Venetians didn't stand a chance. The Turks massacred the entire Venetian garrison along with much of the civilian population. It is speculated that the Turkish army is off to continue its invasion of Cyprus, planning soon to besiege Venetian-held Famagusta. Venetians are appealing for help, claiming that if the Turks conquer Cyprus, they will dominate the Mediterranean Sea.
~~1571
1571*Cellini Dies\n Florence: Famous Italian goldsmith and sculptor Benvenuto Cellini has died in Florence at the age of seventy-one. Although sculpting was Cellini's trade, he may best be remembered for his "Autobiography." This work details Cellini's many, self-proclaimed "world-changing" adventures. Perhaps his most famous goldsmith work is an elaborate silver and gold table ornament known as the "Salt-cellar of Francis I," completed in the 1540s.
1571*William Cecil Named Lord Burghley\n London: William Cecil, chief secretary of state to Queen Elizabeth I, has been created Lord Burghley. During the ceremony, the queen stated, "No prince in Europe hath such a councilor as I have in him." Lord Burghley was made secretary of state in 1550 by King Edward VI and was knighted in 1551.\n Also in the news, it is rumored that Queen Elizabeth I and Henry III, duke of Anjou and brother to Charles IX, king of France, are thinking about getting married! Will the "Virgin Queen" be hearing wedding bells after all?
1571*Pius V Signs Alliance With Spain, Venice\n Vatican City: Pope Pius V has signed an agreement with Spain and Venice to form a Holy League, an alliance to fight the Turks. Under the terms of this agreement, the papal states of Spain and Venice will form a navy which, under the leadership of Don John of Austria, will attempt to wrest control of the Mediterranean Sea from the Turks.\n Since succeeding Pope Pius IV in 1566, Pius V has taken an aggressive stance in preserving and reforming the Roman Catholic Church. Besides his latest move against the infidels, he has obliged his bishops to live within their dioceses and has implored all cardinals to live simply and piously.
~~1572
1572*Thousands of Protestants Killed in France\n Paris: In an event named the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre, thousands of Huguenots have been slaughtered in France. The continuing clash between Roman Catholics and Protestants in France came to a head on August 24, when many well-known Huguenots, including the respected Huguenot leader Gaspard de Coligny, were murdered. With these murders to lead the way, thousands more were killed by mobs of Roman Catholics throughout France. The Catholic uprising appears to have been instigated by Catherine de Medicis, mother of King Charles IX who is quoted as saying, "Kill them all so that not a single one be left to reproach me." Be that as it may, rumors have it that this event may trigger the fourth War of Religion in France within a ten-year period.
1572*Ivan Dissolves His Oprichnina\n Moscow: Ivan the Terrible is integrating his personal domain (oprichnina) into the Russian empire. This move is designed to unify the troops ruling these lands with the Russian army in preparation for defending Russia against a Tatar invasion.\n Ivan's oprichnina forms nearly half of Russia's lands, and his acquisition of this domain was accompanied by ousting the former lands' wealthy families and displacing them to the eastern frontier. Ivan placed his hand-picked troops (the oprichniki) to rule over these lands, a move that many feared would weaken the Russian empire. With the serious threat of a Tatar invasion, even the terrible Ivan sees the wisdom of disbanding his personal domain, focusing his efforts instead on defending his empire.
1572*John Knox Dies\n Scotland: The great Protestant Reformationist John Knox has died in Scotland at the age of fifty-seven. Although ordained a Roman Catholic priest, by 1545 he had become a Protestant. In 1549, Knox became one of the chaplains to King Edward VI; it was at this time that he took a leading role in the English Reformation. Upon Edward's death, Knox was forced into exile in Switzerland as Queen Mary, a Catholic, took over the rulership of Scotland. After Queen Mary's death in 1559, Knox returned to Scotland where he preached against the "idolatry" of the Catholic ritual of Mass, arousing the people so much they began attacking Catholic churches and monasteries. His efforts eventually led to Protestantism being declared the major state religion in 1560 and to the forced abdication of the Catholic Queen Mary of Scotland in 1567.
~~1573
1573*Veronese Called Before Inquisition Tribunal\n Rome: The Italian painter Paolo Veronese has been called before the Inquisition Tribunal in Rome, suspected of heresy against the Roman Catholic Church. Veronese, 45 years old, is popular for his paintings of historical subjects and myths and for his representations of Venetian aristocrats. He has also painted religious subjects and portraits, which may help him before the Inquisition Tribunal. Also of help may be Veronese's many supporters, and many believe that he stands an excellent chance of being vindicated of the charge of heresy.
1573*Henry III, Duke of Anjou, Elected King of Poland\n Poland: Henry III of France, the third son of Henry II, has been crowned king of Poland. Henry is also first in line to succeed his brother, Charles IX, as the king of France. Long thought to be a weakling who, many claim, divides his time between scheming and immoral behaviors, Henry III is also deemed to be his mother's, Catherine de Medicis', puppet, even to the point of taking an active role in the St. Bartholomew's Massacre last year. Many question how Henry III will handle the inevitable power struggle between the Roman Catholic Henry, duke of Guise, and the Protestant Henry of Navarre. It is speculated that, ultimately, the three Henrys will vie for power, and few believe that Henry III has the wit and character necessary to handle such a confrontation.
1573*Drake Gets First Glimpse of Pacific Ocean!\n England: The daring English seaman and pirate Francis Drake has sailed to the Pacific Ocean for the first time. Despite having sailed just about every ocean on the globe, this is the first time that Drake's travels have taken him to this region. Drake, a cousin of the great British sea captain John Hawkins, is well known for his raids against Spanish sea power all over the world, earning the moniker "The Dragon" among the Spanish. It is rumored that, within the next few years, Francis Drake will attempt to circumnavigate the globe, a feat that has never been accomplished.
~~1574
1574*Charles IX of France Dies\n Paris: Charles IX, king of France, has died at the age of 24. Charles came to the throne in 1560 upon the death of his brother, Francis II, and his reign has coincided with a period of numerous Wars of Religion between Catholics and Protestants in France. Most of the decisions he made during his reign are believed to be those dictated to him by his mother, Catherine de Medicis, including authorizing the Saint Bartholomew's Massacre two years ago. He will be succeeded by his brother Henry III, currently king of Poland.
1574*Selim II, Sultan of Turkey, Dies\n Turkey: Selim II, the sultan of Turkey, has mercifully died after a drunken fall on the wet marble floor of the Topkapu baths. Sadly lacking any resemblance to the sultans who preceded him, Selim "wore away his days in sensual enjoyments, in drunkenness and indolence," stated a Venetian ambassador. Thankfully for the Turks, Selim II inherited the grand vizier, Sokullu Mehmed Pasha, from his father. The vizier had done a phenomenal job carrying on the affairs of the nation, even creating plans to build a series of fortresses on the south Russian steppe and to dig a canal to join the Volga and the Don rivers. Selim II will be succeeded by Murad III.
1574*First Theater Opens in London\n London: Drama has become so popular in London that the first permanent theater has been opened here. James Burbage, father of famous actor Richard Burbage, has built the first London playhouse and named it, quite simply, "The Theatre." Its location in the northern suburbs puts The Theatre beyond the authority of the lord mayor and the council, who are not amenable to plays and players within the city. The Theatre's design is similar to that of the Innyard, which has previously been used for performances. With the current wave of popularity of stage plays, it seems likely that The Theatre will be the first of many such establishments in London.
~~1575
1575*King of Poland Now King of France\n Paris: Henry III, king of Poland, who succeeded his brother King Charles IX of France upon his death last year, has been formally crowned at Reims. Another son of the ambitious Catherine de Medicis, Henry participated in the notorious St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (August 24, 1572), during which thousands of French Protestants were murdered. The new French king seems to be as much under his mother's influence as Charles IX was.\n Filling the vacuum in Poland, Stephen Bathory of Transylvania has become the new Polish king.
1575*Fifth French War of Religion\n Paris: For the fifth time in 13 years, France is suffering a religious civil war. Still smoldering after the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, the Protestants of southwestern France are once again defiant. Catholic troops under Duke Henry of Guise have scored a victory this October at the Battle of Dormans, but few see it as decisive. The "politiques," a moderate Catholic faction who helped broker the last peace in the name of national unity, are back trying to let cooler heads prevail.
1575*Around the World\n Europe: The plague that recently broke out in Sicily is spreading up through Italy and has reached Milan.\n In what Queen Elizabeth I of England must consider a cowardly act, her Parliament has granted itself legal freedom from arrest for its members and their servants.\n Spain declares bankruptcy -- New World wealth seems squandered in repeated Hapsburg wars in Europe.\n Cheap European knockoffs of fine Chinese porcelain produced in Venice and Florence.\n Latest census figures show London with 180,000 citizens, Cologne with 35,000.
~~1576
1576*Netherlands Revolt Rages\n Brussels: King Philip II of Spain, son of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, a fanatical Catholic and widower of Queen Mary I of England, has appointed his half brother Don John of Austria, the victor of Lepanto, the new Governor of the Netherlands. Inheriting a Dutch war for independence in both Belgium and Holland (which unified with Zeeland this year under the Act of Federation signed in Delft), the new governor of the Netherlands vows to continue the fight, even though Spanish garrisons have been thrown out of the northern provinces by the prince of Orange, William the Silent.
1576*Antwerp Massacre\n Ghent: Spanish troops occupying the Low Countries have killed some six thousand people and burned approximately 800 homes in what has been dubbed "The Spanish Fury." After this brutal sacking of Antwerp, citizens in Holland and Belgium of all religious persuasions (principally Catholics in the South and Calvinists in the North) have united together in the Pacification of Ghent to defy Spanish rule of the area. While this revolt against Spain is far from over, another bloody page has certainly been written, and the population's hearts seem to be hardening quickly against King Philip II of Spain and his inquisition.
1576*Wars of Religion Continue in France\n Paris: King Henry III of France has issued the Edict of Beaulieu that, tacitly, tolerates reformed religion in France. The king further agreed to the Peace of Monsieu (renewing ineffectual promises of religious freedom). However, Duke Henry of Guise would have none of this, opening up a Sixth War of Religion by forming a holy league with the backing of King Philip II of Spain (who seeks the French throne).\n Also in France, decimal fractions were introduced by Francois Viete, while Jean Bodin has published "La republique," which advocates a constitutional monarchy.
1576*Around Europe\n Torgau: Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II has died. The former king of Bohemia and Hungary maintained a policy of religious toleration that provided some relief from the conflicts of the Reformation in Germany. Maximilian is succeeded by his brother Rudolf II, the current king of Bohemia and Hungary.\n The "Articles of Faith" have been drawn up by the League of Torgau in support of the opinions of Martin Luther.\n A modern study of botany has begun with Clusius' publication of his treatise on the flowers of Spain and Portugal.
~~1577
1577*Dutch War for Independence Continues\n Brussels: Don John of Austria, recently appointed governor of the Netherlands, has issued his Perpetual Edict to settle the current civil war in the Low Countries. Rebel leader William the Silent, the prince of Orange, has rejected the edict. Later, Don John was deposed by the Netherlands states general, opening the way for William of Orange to enter Brussels in triumph. This helped lead to an alliance between England and the rebels in the Netherlands. Spain is not likely to let matters stand as they are, and further military action is expected.
1577*French King Henry III Presses Sixth Religious War\n Paris: Even as Henry of Navarre was recognized the head of the Huguenot (Protestant) party in France, the Catholic Holy League that formed last year under Duke Henry of Guise subdued the Protestants. This is a rocky year for the Huguenots, who have lost the support of the politiques. They've been forced to accept the terms of the Peace of Bergerac, but few expect the vacillating King Henry III of France to live up to his side of the agreement.
1577*World News This Year\n Europe: Mogul leader Akbar, who conquered Bengal two years ago, has now completed his annexation of northern India.\n Francis Drake sets sail in November on a world cruise via Cape Horn, South Africa.\n Prince Stephen Bathory of Transylvania, elected king of Poland after Henry III fled the country to rule France, has had his throne secured by the surrender of Danzig, the last bastion of resistance to the new king's rule. Backed by the military force of the Polish nobility, the recently elected king should bring stability now that civil war following his ascension has ended.
~~1578
1578*News From the Netherlands\n Brussels: Queen Elizabeth I of England has offered to mediate between governor of the Netherlands, Don John of Austria, and Dutch rebels. With the death of Don John by typhoid while awaiting events in Namur, however, the game in the Netherlands has changed dramatically. Alessandro Farnese, duke of Parma, has been appointed by his uncle, King Philip II of Spain, as the new viceroy of the Low Countries. "Discussion is over," claims a press release from the magnificent Farnese Palace in Rome. "I shall free the Netherlands of this nationalist and Protestant rabble," said Alessandro Farnese.
1578*The King of Portugal Dies\n Lisbon: Leading a crusade against the flood of Muslim Turks in Morocco, King Sebastian of Portugal, who succeeded his grandfather John III to the throne, was slain during his victory at the Battle of Alcazar. King Sebastian was a staunch (some say fanatic) Catholic who never married during his 34 years. This leaves a vacuum in the line of Portuguese succession as the warrior king left no clear heir, so the aging Cardinal Henry assumed the throne. Covetous of Portuguese wealth, Spain is casting a hungry eye on her Iberian neighbor as a means of solving Spanish financial troubles.
1578*What Else Is News?\n Europe: Rumors leak of the secret conversion to Catholicism of King John III of Sweden.\n Scotland's earl of Morton resigns as regent; James VI, son of the imprisoned Mary, queen of Scots, assumes power over government as king of Scotland at age twelve.\n Otomo Yoshishige, one of the chief rulers of Japan, converts to Christianity.\n Persia has a new shah in Mohammed Khudabanda.\n In London, the Levant Trading Company is founded for conducting trade with Ottoman Turkey.
~~1579
1579*Dutch Form United Provinces\n Brussels: Emerging out of the struggle for independence in the Low Countries, the inking of a military alliance between the English under Queen Elizabeth I and the Dutch under William of Orange has altered the political landscape. In search of greater autonomy from Spain, by signing the Union of Utrecht, the northern provinces have now become the United Provinces.\n In Belgium, however, Spanish-appointed Netherlands governor Alessandro Farnese's reconquest of the area has been recognized by the leaders of these southern states with the Union of Arras.
1579*European Fingers Spread\n London: Basking in the glory of his world cruise, Francis Drake has stuck his flag in the sand of California. In the name of the English crown, Drake proclaimed English sovereignty of New Albion, California.\n The Portuguese are also tightening their grip on world trade. This time, Portuguese merchants have set up the first trading post in Bengal.\n The first Englishman to settle in India (at Goa), Father Thomas Stephens, arrived this year.
1579*Italian Happenings\n Rome: Exploration continues of last year's big discovery, the Catacombs of Rome. Many subterranean Jewish and early Christian burial sites have already been located.\n Giovanni da Bologna unveils his latest sculpture, "The Rape of the Sabines."\n The latest survey of European travelers indicates that the most popular style of cooking throughout the continent is Italian. The combination of pasta that Marco Polo brought back from China and the tomato from the Americas has made this new culinary combination staggeringly popular.
~~1580
1580*Portugal and Spain United!\n Old King Henry, who assumed the throne of Portugal upon the death of the noble King Sebastian who died fighting the Moors in Morocco, has died. While he lived, King Philip II, with his greedy eyes on the wealth of Portugal as a means to save his bankrupt country, bribed enough nobility and clergy to be named as the successor to the Portuguese throne. While the common people resent this action and pray for the return of King Sebastian (rumors that he isn't really dead are rampant), the duke of Alba secured the country with a fleet and 27 thousand troops in advance of Philip's arrival.
1580*A Brief War and Murder\n Paris: The Seventh War of Religion has quickly started and ceased in France. Proving that bedfellows make strange politics, this "Lover's War" is attributed to the romantic escapades of the gorgeous nymph "Queen Margot," wife of the equally promiscuous Protestant Henry of Navarre.\n In Moscow, Czar Ivan IV (The Terrible) has killed his own son and heir this year with his bare hands. Ivan's nickname, "grozny" (stern), seems more than a little appropriate.
1580*English Happenings\n London: An earthquake racked the city of London this year, causing some considerable damage. Not as a response to the earthquake, but to limit city growth and the effects of urban sprawl, erecting new buildings in London has been prohibited.\n Francis Drake has returned to England from his world cruise. Leaving with five ships for the Straits of Magellan, he returned with only one, The Golden Hind.\n The Jesuit mission in England began this July with Edmund Campion and Robert Parsons landing in the country.
~~1581
1581*Pope Tries to Heal Roman, Russian Religions\n Rome: Pope Gregory XIII, former law professor and one of the luminaries of the Council of Trent, has sent emissaries to Moscow in an attempt to reconcile differences between the Roman Catholic and Russian Orthodox churches. While deemed as a noble effort by Catholics (and a desperate one by Protestants), few expect that much will come of the meetings.\n Rumors that Pope Gregory has also been working on a major project to revise the Julian calendar have been confirmed, and more news is expected on this within a year.
1581*Portugal Submits\n Lisbon: The duke of Alba, who led an army of 27 thousand troops in advance of King Philip II of Spain's journey to his coronation in Lisbon, has laid down the law. In Thomar, the way was paved for King Philip to summon the cortes (Portuguese nobility) and obtain their sworn allegiance, despite the general ill will felt toward Philip by the common people of Portugal. The coronation took place in Lisbon amidst considerable pomp, with many noting that the "bride" (Portugal) is paying a tremendous dowry to a desperately bankrupt groom.
1581*In Other News\n London: Edmund Campion, the Jesuit who founded a mission in England last year with Robert Parsons, has been tried for treason and executed.\n The newly seated king of Poland, Stephen Bathory, has invaded Russia.\n Ivan The Terrible, meanwhile, has sent armies into Central Asia and Siberia hoping to enlarge the Russian empire.\n At Deptford, England, Queen Elizabeth has knighted Francis Drake.\n Akbar, leader of the growing Mughal Empire, has conquered Afghanistan from his bases in India and the Punjab.
~~1582
1582*Mark Your Calendar\n Rome: The Julian calendar, introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BC, has long been known to be inaccurate. Pope Gregory XIII, for his part, has introduced a new calendar this year. Dubbed the "Gregorian Calendar," it was adopted in the Papal States, Spain, and Portugal in October. France, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia embraced the new calendar in December. England and Russia are notable holdouts.
1582*Russia Loses in Baltic War\n Riga: In a three-way power struggle over control of the Baltic provinces, Russia has come up on the short end against Poland and Sweden. The Peace of Jam-Zapolski has seen Ivan The Terrible's Russia losing access to the Baltic as it is forced to abandon Livonia and Estonia. Poland is the big winner, securing these provinces as part of the peace terms. Many experts see these Baltic Sea regions as a powder keg for future conflict in this area.
1582*Nobunaga Assassinated!\n Koyoto (Tokyo), Japan: Oda Nobunaga, great unifier of Japan, was murdered by one of his own generals at his capital in Koyoto. Born into a noble family near Nagoya, Oda Nobunaga rose to the rank of general, then shogun and daimyo. He has ruled Japan since 1568 from Azuchi Castle, his headquarters, in the old capital city of Kyoto. In an effort to destroy the power of the Buddhist following in Japan, he favored Christianity. With no clear successor, Japan will be seeking another strong man to rule.
1582*Across the Map\n Europe: William of Orange, ruler of the newly formed Dutch Republic, has survived an assassination attempt by Spanish agents.\n Graduated pay, based on rank, has been introduced into England's Royal Navy.\n King James VI of Scotland has been kidnapped by Protestant nobles at Ruthven.\n The first Jesuit mission has been founded in China. Christian missionaries, fearful of their protection after the assassination of Nobunaga, might relocate to China.\n England founds its first colony at Newfoundland in an effort to expand its fishing trade and to increase its number of sailors.
~~1583
1583*Plots Against Queen Elizabeth I\n London: The Roman Catholics in England seem to be lining up to have their heads snicked off and placed on pikes in the queen's courtyard. A plot by John Sommerville to assassinate the unpopular queen was discovered; he was soon executed. Later, the Throgmorton plot for a Spanish invasion of England was discovered. Naturally, Francis Throgmorton was promptly arrested and executed. While many suspect her imprisonment of her sister, Mary, queen of Scots, to be the reason behind these Catholic plots, the "Virgin Queen," although cruel and capricious, still sits firmly on the English throne.
1583*Netherlands News\n Antwerp: French troops under Francis, duke of Anjou, have sacked Antwerp. Once invited in as allies of the Dutch, their purpose has become clear; they mean to control the Netherlands for France.\n Rebel leader William, prince of Orange ("William the Silent"), has accepted sovereignty of the northern Netherlands. The Spanish are not leaving quietly, and many see foreign agents and sympathizers behind every tree, waiting for their chance to assassinate the newly elected William I.
1583*Top of the News\n Europe: James VI of Scotland eludes his captors. After ten months in the hands of the Ruthven raiders, the king of Scotland is safely back at court.\n Ralph Fitch and Jon Eldred led English expeditions to Mesopotamia, India, and the Persian Gulf, and hope to rival the Portuguese world-trade empire.\n With Queen Elizabeth I lopping off Catholic and "conspirator's" heads so often, William Gibbons takes out the first life insurance policy.\n Likely successor to Japan's Oda Nobunaga, general Toyotomi Hideyoshi, has laid the foundation of a new headquarters: Osaka Castle.
~~1584
1584*It's Godunov for Me\n Moscow: Ivan IV, The Terrible, has died at age fifty-four. Known for both his paranoia and insanity, he also expanded Russia by annexing Siberia and securing the Volga River down to the Caspian Sea. Ivan is succeeded as Czar by his son Fyodor, who has relinquished most of his power to his brother-in-law, Ivan's trusted favorite, Boris Godunov. Urging an extension of serfdom to gain their support, Godunov is still perceived as an unwelcome element by the Russian boyars (nobility) who hope that Fyodor's half brother, Dmitri, will soon take the reigns of government.
1584*A Chapter Closes in Netherlands\n Amsterdam: Dutch mourn for the loss of their leader, William I of Orange. At the instigation of King Philip II of Spain, Balthazar Gerard has assassinated the newly elected ruler of the United Provinces. England has sent aid to the Netherlands in hopes of blocking further Spanish and French interests in the region, but with the death of Francis, duke of Anjou, this year (at age thirty), French intervention is not immediately expected. Right now, most Dutch leaders see the Spanish as more to be feared than the French.
1584*World Claim Report\n London: In a great handshake across the Norwegian Sea, a Dutch trading post has been founded at Archangel, Russia. Located below the Arctic Circle on the White Sea northeast of Moscow, this is seen as an important link between western Europe and the emerging Russian state.\n In the New World, Sir Walter Raleigh has discovered and annexed Virginia, named after the "Virgin Queen," Elizabeth I of England. Speculators are already scheming on ways to profit from this discovery, even to the point of starting colonies in the Americas.
~~1585
1585*The Netherlands Question\n Rotterdam: Who has sovereignty over the Netherlands? King Henry III of France has, for political reasons, declined it (after his failed siege of Antwerp two years ago). Queen Elizabeth I of England has declined it, although she has sent troops to keep the United Provinces free of French and Spanish dominion. Many are looking to William the Silent's son, Maurice of Nassau, to become stadtholder. After the recent Spanish resurgence from Belgium, their capture of Flanders and Brabant has forced the United Provinces to move their capital to The Hague.
1585*Sauce for the Drake\n London: Noted seaman Sir Francis Drake has set sail with 25 ships on orders from Queen Elizabeth I to harass the Catholic Spanish. Sailing for the Indies, Drake first raided the Spanish port of Vigo in northwest Spain before raiding Santo Domingo in the Spanish Indies. Drake, who circumnavigated the world five years ago and thus earned his knighthood, hopes to bring back to England tobacco, potatoes, and the dispirited Virginian colonists from Walter Raleigh's Roanoke Island.
1585*War of Three Henrys\n Paris: Catholic King Henry III of France, who remains childless, must face the fact that Protestant Henry of Navarre is his likely successor. With the Catholic-Huguenot disputes such as they are, no one is surprised that Henry of Guise has reorganized the Holy League to do battle in the king's name against resentful Protestants. Armies are being mobilized in France's Eighth War of Religion in the past 23 years. This one is already well known as The War of Three Henrys.
1585*The Pope is Dead!\n Rome: Pope Gregory XIII dies. The pope, who brought us the Gregorian calendar (featuring leap years), was also known as "The Education Pontiff." In fact, the education of many of his colleagues in Rome was, in whole or in part, endowed by him. The beloved pope is replaced by Cardinal Felice Peretti, who has been elected Pope Sixtus V. The new pope seeks to bring administrative and financial reforms to the church.
1585*Toyoto Drives Japan\n In Japan, Toyotomi Hideyoshi has established his rule as daimyo (ruler) of Japan. Many have remarked that it is unusual for an ordinary soldier to rise to become Nobunaga's foremost general (future generations will know him as "The Napoleon of Japan"), but his humble origins work both for and against him in the Japanese political system. Already Buddhists are starting to bring pressure on him to expel Christians from Japan.
~~FINI
Indians Defend New World\n The war to claim the New World finally ended today, as %[leaderName]s of the Indians successfully defended their homeland from European invaders. "No longer will our braves die at the hands of the white man," %[leaderName]s said. "But we do not rule out the possibility of taking our canoes across the water and despoiling their land for a change!"
Indians Gain Victory\n The native American leader %[leaderName]s announced victory today as the Indians successfully defended their homeland from European invaders. "Our victory was inevitable." Chief %[leaderName]s told the press. "The white man is very inefficient and impractical. They could not survive in our world, let alone conquer it." The kings of Europe claimed that they didn't really want the New World in the first place, and have entered negotiations with the Saracens to find a new route to the silklands.
Indians Smite Whites\n %[leaderName]s of the Indians announced victory in the long war against the Europeans. "Our enemies were terrible warriors, but they could not stand against a just cause." %[leaderName]s said, celebrating the triumphant end of the American Indian revolution. The Europeans refused to comment on their ignominious defeat.
~~FIND
Dutch Claim the Prize\n %[leaderName]s of the Dutch announced victory in the long war to control the New World. "We believe that our mercantile interests are best suited for exploiting this new frontier. If we could buy Manhattan for 24 measly dollars, imagine what we can do with an entire continent!" The victory was marked by celebrations from Antwerp to Rotterdam.
Dutch Clutch New World\n %[leaderName]s of the Dutch announced victory in the long war to control the New World. "This is a great day for the Dutch people. We have defeated the arrogant Spanish, the insufferable English, the unspeakable French, the monstrous Portuguese and brought civilized behavior to the savage tribes whether they like it or not." Enemies accused the victorious Dutch of gloating.
~~FINE
English Fulfill Dreams of Empire\n %[leaderName]s of the English announced victory in the long war to control the New World. "We have won a glorious victory. The sun shall never set on the British Empire, even if it dims a little bit over Ireland." English spokesmen Samuel Adams and George Washington told the press that they anticipated no problems for the new colonial government.
English Fulfill Dreams of Empire\n %[leaderName]s of the English announced the end of the long war to control the New World. "We have won a great victory." %[leaderName]s said. "And, even better, we stopped the French from winning!" The French leadership responded by starting another war in Europe, the 14th war in Europe during this century.
~~FINF
French Fulfill Dreams of Empire\n %[leaderName]s of the French announced the end of the long war to control the New World. "We have won a great victory." %[leaderName]s said. "And, even better, we stopped the English from winning!" The English leadership responded by starting another war in Europe, the 14th war in Europe during this century.
French Claim the Prize\n %[leaderName]s of the French announced victory in the long war to control the New World. "This is a great victory for France. We can bring culture to the New World and will no longer have to tolerate snooty American tourists." The French began their celebration by building the Statue of Victory in the harbor of the city formerly known as New York.
~~FINP
Portuguese Supreme in New World\n %[leaderName]s of the Portuguese announced victory in the long war to control the New World. "Our victory was inevitable," %[leaderName]s said. "We were the true innovators in navigation and commerce centuries before anyone else. And God was on our side. Now if we only knew what to do with this new continent of ours."
Portuguese Given New World\n Pope Pontius Pius II today announced that he recognized %[leaderName]s of the Portuguese as the sole leader of the New World. "This Christian prince has pleased me. Such an effort to explore and convert the heathen has been remarkable. Truly there could be no other choice." %[leaderName]s expressed complete agreement with the papal choice, and promised not to invade the Papal States in the near future.
~~FINS
Spanish Conquer New World\n The long struggle for supremacy in the New World ended today, as the Spanish announced their victory. "It has been a long, bitter, bloody struggle. Many great and noble Spaniards have lost their lives in hideous fashion," Spanish leader %[leaderName]s said. "How glorious." The Spanish told the press that they intend to plunder as much gold from their newly conquered empire as possible.
Spanish Conquer New World\n %[leaderName]s of the Spanish announced victory in the long war to control the New World. "We are the pearls of Castile and the pride of Andalusia. What other vessels of manhood exist that can rival us? How could we not triumph?" To answer these questions, the Spanish announced a new series of inquisitions would begin today.
